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FARMING FOR PROFIT 

FARM CROPS 

THEIR CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT 

A NON-TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR THE CULTIVATION, 
MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS 



BY 

FRANK D. GARDNER 

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 
AND EXPERIMENT STATION 



ASSISTED BY 

C. F. NOLL ALVA AGEE 

Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania Director, Agricultural Extension, 

Stale College Rutgers College 

W. H. DARST PROF. E. F. CAUTHEN 

Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania Associate in Agriculture, Alabama Agricultural 

State College Experiment Station 

GEORGE T. McNESS 

Tobacco Expert, Texas Experiment Station 




ILLUSTRATED 



THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO 






Copyright, 1918, by 
The John C. Winston Company 



Copyright, 1916, by 
L. T. Myers 



APR 19 Ibis 

e)CI.A5l52h5 



PREFACE 



^ This book makes a popular appeal to all men engaged in farming, 

whether amateurs or professionals. It is designed to be a handy reference 
work on the cultivation and management of farm crops. Technical terms 
and lengthy discussions have been avoided. 

Ages of farm experience and a few generations of agricultural research 
have given us a vast store of practical knowledge on tilling the soil and 
raising crops. This knowledge is scattered through many different volumes 
on different phases of the subject, in experunent station bulletins, agri- 
cultural journals and encyclopedias. The important facts on which the 
most successful farming is based are here brought together in readable 
form. 

The subject-matter is arranged in three parts, the first dealing with 
the various farm crops, their selection and cultivation; the second with 
the diseases of farm crops and their remedies, insect pests and their control, 
and insecticides and fungicides; and the third includes valuable tables 
of agricultural statistics showing the cost per acre of producing farm crops, 
the fertility of farm produce, percentage composition of agricultural 
products and so forth. 

Each department has been prepared by a specialist in the subject 
presented, and his name appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those 
unacknowledged have been prepai'ed by myself. References are given 
here and there to books and pamphlets that may be helpful to the farmer 
who mshes to have more exhaustive information on specific subjects. 

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit 
has been given these. 

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and 
the other volumes in the series for their conception and for many helpful 
suggestions in the presentation of the subject-matter. 

Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor 
R. S. Smith, both of the Pennsylvania State College, for helpful sugges- 
tions and criticisms on crop rotations. I wish also to especially acknowl- 
edge the valuable editorial assistance of my wife in the preparation of 
the manuscript. 

Frank D. Gardner. 



(5) 



CONTENTS 



PART I. FARM CROPS 

Chapter 1. CROP IMPROVEMENT 19 

Plant selection — Kinds of variation — Hybridization — Choice of varieties. 

Com. 
The ear-row method — Ideals in selection of corn. 

Wheat, Oats and Barley. 
First year — Second year — Third year — Fourth year — Fifth and succeeding years 
— Crossing of varieties in small grain breeding. 

Potatoes. 
Production of seedlings — Hill and tuber selection — Opportunities in crop improve- 
ment. 

Chapter 2. THE ROTATION OF CROPS 28 

Rotations defined — Purpose of rotations — ^Maintain good physical condition of 
soil — Conserve organic matter and nitrogen — Provide for extermination of weeds 
—Lessen insect depredations — Reduce plant diseases — Improve environment of 
crops — Rotations insure returns — Prevent reduced crop yields — Rotations 
systematize farming — Rotations distribute labor — Essentials of a good rotation 
— Sequence of crops — Length of rotations — What crops to grow — When to apply 
manure and fertilizers — Some suggested rotations — Methods of planning and 
recording rotations. 

Chapter 3. CORN (ZEA MAIZE) 39 

Classification of corn — Varieties of corn — The chief corn-growing states — Soil 
and climatic adaptation — Crop rotation for corn — Plowing for corn — Manures 
and fertilizers for corn — Time and method of planting — Rate of planting — Depth 
of planting — Preparation of seed for planting — Cultivation of corn — Methods 
of harvesting — Storing corn — Shrinkage of corn — Market grades of corn — 
Composition and feeding value of corn. 

Com Improvement. 
Securing seed — Selecting seed — Care of seed — Germination test — Germinating 
box — Improvement by selection and breeding. 

Chapter 4. WHEAT (WINTER AND SPRING). 59 

Wheat production in the United States — Climatic and soil adaptation — Rotations 
— Preparation of the seed-bed — Fertilizers for wheat — Time of seeding — Rate 
of seeding — Grain drills — Winter killing — Wheat districts — District No. 1 — Dis- 
trict No. 2 — District No. 3 — District No. 4 — District No. 5 — Wheat improvement 
— Harvesting — Cost of producing wheat — Enemies of wheat: Weeds — Insects 
— Fungous diseases — Treatment. 

Chapter 5. OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 72 

Oats. 

Soil and climatic adaptation — Classes and varieties — Seed oats and their prepara- 
tion for seeding — Preparation of the seed-bed — Fertihzers and manures for oats 
— Time, rate and manner of seeding — Oats as a nurse crop — Harvesting, shock- 
ing and threshing — Storing and marketing — Composition and feeding value — 
Value of oats for hay and soiling purposes — Oat straw and its utilization — Cost of 
producing oats — Oat improvement. 

(7) 



CONTENTS 



Barley. 
Soil and climatic adaptation — Classes and varieties — Preparation of land and 
seeding — Harvesting and use — Use of by-products. 

Rye. 

Adaptation and culture — Uses of rye. 

Chapter 6. BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, EMMER, KAFFIR CORN AND 

SUNFLOWER 82 

Buckwheat. 
Soil and climatic adaptation — Varieties — Preparation of soil and seeding — 
Fertilizers and rotations — Harvesting and threshing — Uses of buckwheat. 

Rice. 

Soil and climatic adaptation — Preparation of land and seeding — Flooding or 
irrigation — Harvesting and threshing — Yields and value. 

Flax. ^ 

Soil and climatic adaptation — Preparation of land and seeding — Harvesting and 
threshing — Yield and value of crop — Utilization — Diseases of flax. 

Kaffir Corn. 
Regions of production — Value and uses — Varieties — Production and harvesting, 

Emmer. 
Sunflowers. 

Chapter 7. MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 92 

Importance and value of grasses — Regions of production — Principal grasses of 
North America — Valuable characteristics — Choice of grasses — Seed and seeding 
— Harvesting. 

Timothy. 
Soil and 'climatic adaptation — Advantages of timothy — Seed and seeding — 
Fertilizers and manures — Mixing timothy with other grasses and clovers — 
Harvesting — Pasturing — Seed production — Composition and feeding value — 
Improvement of timothy — Marketing the hay. 

Blue Grass. 

Soil and climatic adaptation — Importance of blue grass — Methods of establishing 
— Pasture and maintenance. 

Redtop. 
Importance of redtop — Culture — Yields and uses. 

Orchard Grass. 

Importance — Culture — Yields and uses. 

Brome grass— Tall oat grass — The fescues — Rye grasses — Sudan grass — Bermuda 

grass — Johnson grass— Para grass — Guinea grass. 

Chapter 8. THE CLOVERS 109 

Characteristics of clovers — Uses of clovers — Inoculation — Composition and feed- 
ing value — Harvesting methods. 

Red Clover. 

Soil and climatic adaptation — Endurance of red clover — Securing clover seed — 
Preparation of seed-bed — Time, manner, rate and depth of seeding — Nurse crops 
for clover — Fertilizers for clover — After treatment of clover — rlarvesting of 
clover — Clover seed production — Red clover troubles. 

Alsike clover — White clover — Ladino clover — Crimson clover — Sweet clover — 
Lespedeza or Japan clover — Bur clover — Hop clover. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter 9. ALFALFA 121 

Distribution of alfaKa — Soil and climatic adaptation — Essentials for success — 
Varieties of alfalfa — Sources of seed — Need for fertilizers and lime — Preparation 
of seed-bed — Time, rate, depth and manner of seeding — ^Inoculation — After treat- 
ment — Making alfalfa hay — Number of cuttings and yield — Other uses of alfalfa — 
Composition and feeding value — Irrigation of alfaKa — Seed production. 

Chapter 10. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 132 

Extent, value and importance — Essential qualities of meadows and pastures — 
Advantages of meadows and pastures — Soil and climatic requirements — Forma- 
tion of meadows and pastures — Preparation of soil — Meadow and pasture seed 
mixtiu-es — Seeding grasses and clovers — Treatment of meadows and pastures — 
Care of meadows and pastures — Improvement of meadows and pastures — Manur- 
ing, fertilizing and liming — Utilizing aftermath — Capacity of pastures — Compo- 
sition and palatability of pasture grass and hay — Temporary pastures. 

Chapter 11. MISCELLANEOUS ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS.... 144 

Cowpeas. 
Varieties — Time, manner, rate and depth of seeding — Seeding with other crops 
- — Fertilizers, tillage and rotations — Time and method of harvesting — Feeding 
value and utihzation. 

Soy Beans. 
Varieties — Time, method, rate and depth of seeding — Inoculation, tillage and 
fertilizers — Time and method of harvesting — Composition, feeding value and 
utihzation. 

Vetches — Canada field peas — Harvesting — Other annual legumes — Sorghiuns — 
Millet— Rape — ^Catch crops for pasture and hay. 

Chapter 12. ANNUAL LEGUMES, GROWN PRINCIPALLY FOR SEEDS., 156 

Field bean — Time, rate, manner and depth of seeding — Harvesting — Threshing 
and cleaning — Yield — Field peas — Cowpeas — Soy beans — Castor bean — Vetch 
— Crimson clover. 

Peanuts. 
Soil and climatic conditions — Fertilizers and hme required — Time, rate, depth 
and manner of planting — Seed selection and preparation — Varieties — Cultivation, 
harvesting and curing — Preparing for market — Yields. 

Chapter 13. ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE 167 

Relation to other crops — Utilization and feeding value — Sugar beets — Mangels — 
Turnips and rutabagas — Carrots — Parsnip — Cabbage — Kale — Artichokes — Cas- 
sava — Chuf a — Tar o — Yout ia . 

Chapter 14. THE POTATO 173 

The soil — Crop rotation — Soil preparation — The seed — Fertihzation — The plant- 
ing — Cultivation — Diseases — Insect pests — Harvesting the crop. 

Chapter 15. SUGAR CROPS (CANE, BEET AND MAPLE SUGAR, AND 

SORGHUM) 180 

Sugar Beets. 
Adaptation — Preparation of land — Fertihzation — Seeding and cultivation — 
Harvesting — Seed production — Manufacture of beet sugar — By-products of beet 
farming. 

Cane Sugar. 
Description and mode of reproduction — Soils — Varieties of cane — Rotation and 
preparation of the land — Fertilizers — Cultivation — Harvesting — Cane sugar 
manufacture. 
Maple Sugar — Sugar making — Sorghum. 



10 CONTENTS 



Chapter 16. COTTON PRODUCTION 191 

Species — Characteristics of the plant — ^Seed — Varieties of upland cotton grouped 
— Cluster group— Semi-cluster group — Peterkin group — King group — Big-boll 
group — Long-staple upland group — Desired qualities of a variety — Selection — 
Soils adapted to cotton — Special types of soils. 

Fertilizer and Cultivation. 
Plant food removed by cotton — Need of humus — Need of nitrogen — Need of 
phosphoric acid — Need of potash — Commercial fertilizers profitable — Three-year 
rotation suggested — Preparation of land — Time of plowing — Seed-bed — Planting 
—Tillage. 

Harvesting and Marketing. 
Picking — Ginning — Cotton seed — Storing — Grades of cotton. 

Chapter 17. TOBACCO 203 

Types and their commercial uses — Principal tobacco districts — Soils — Prepara- 
tion and care of seed-beds — Preparation of the soil — Fertilizers — Transplanting 
and cultivation — Methods of harvesting — Barn curing— Preparation for market — 
Methods of selling. 

Chapter 18. WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 215 

Damage done by weeds^Weeds reduce crop yields — How introduced and spread 
— Classification of weeds — Weed habitats — l^inciples governing control — Canada 
thistle — Quack grass — Foxtail — Dodders — Buckhorn — Plantain — Pigweed — 
Lamb's-Quarters — ^WUd mustard or charlock— Shepherd's-purse — Peppergrass — 
Cocklebur — Field bindweed or wild morninjj glory — Hedge bindweed — Fifty 
worst weeds. 

PART II. DISEASES OF FARM CROPS 

Chapter 19. DISEASES OF FARM CROPS AND THEIR REMEDIES.... 239 
Bean. Antliracnose — Rust — Blight — Downy mildew — Leaf spot. 
Pea. Spot. 

Beets. Leaf spot — Root rot. 

Cabbage, Cauliflower, Turnips, etc. Black rot — Club root or finger and toe disease. 
Carrot. Soft rot. 

Potato. Late blight or downy mildew — Early blight — Wilt, stem rot and dry rot 
— Black leg — Scab — ^Little potato, rosette, stem rot, scurf — Bacterial wilt — 
Tipburn. 

Peanut. Foliage and root diseases. 

Tobacco. Granville tobacco wilt — Mosaic, calico or mottle top — Leaf spots — 
Root rots. 
Com. Smut. 

Wheat. Rusts — Loose smut — Stinking smut or bunt. 
Oats. Rust — Smut. 

Sugar Cane. Red rot— Rind disease — The pineapple disease — Other diseases. 
Cotton. Anthracnose — Damping off — Sore shin — Seeding rot. 
Flax. Wilt. 

Chapter 20. INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 250 

General Crop Insects. 
Caterpillars (leaf-eating) — Cutworms — Grasshoppers or locusts — Leaf beetles 
Plant lice — White grubs — -Wire worms. 

Field Crop Insects. 
The army worm — The alfalfa leaf weevil — The chinch bug — Clover mite — Clover 
root borer — Corn ear worm — The corn root aphis — Cotton boll worm — Cotton 
worm — The cotton red spider — The fall army worm — The green bug or spring 
grain aphis — The Hessian fly — Mexican cotton boll weevil — Spring grain aphis — 
Southern (-orn root worm or bud worm— Toba(!co flea beetle — Tobacco worms or 
horn worms — Western corn root worm — Wheat joint worm — Wheat straw worm. 



CONTENTS 



11 



Chapter 21. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 264 

Insecticides. 
Paris green — Arsenate of lead — Arsenite of zinc — London purple — White arsenic — 
Sulphur — Lime-sulphur wash — Tobacco extracts — Pyrethrum — White hellebore — 
Coal oU — Crude oils — Soaps — Coal tar — Borax — Other insecticides — Bisulphide of 
carbon — Carbon tetrachlorid — Para-dichlorobenzene — Hydrocyanic acid gas. 



Fungicides. 
Copper sulphate — Bordeaux mixture — Copperas or iron sulphate- 
formaldehyde — Bichloride of mercury — Lime-sulphur wash. 

Combined Insecticides and Fungicides. 



-Formalin or 



PART III. TABLES OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS AND 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

PAGE 

Table I. Percentage composition of agricultural products 279 

Table II. Fertility in farm produce 283 

Table III. Weight per bushel, seeding rate per acre, number of seeds per pound 

and depth to cover farm seed 284 

Table IV. Water requirements of various standard crops 286 

Table V. Cost per acre producing crops 287 

Table VI. Cost of farm horse power 287 

Table VII. Weights and measures 288 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Types and Varieties of Corn {Color Plate) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Variations in Timothy 20 

Note the Variation in the Second Generation Hybrids (Wheat) 21 

The Ear-to-Row Test Plat with Corn Husked 28 

Variations in Yield of Potatoes from Selected Tubers 26 

Dangers of Continuous Cropping 29 

The Height of Stalks and Positions of Ears {Corn) 38 

Corn Acreage by States 41 

Corn Yield Follows the Amount of Rainfall {Chart) 42 

Time and Method of Planting Corn 45, 46, 47 

Right and Wrong Way of Cultivating Corn 49 

Several Forms of Husking Pegs 50 

High and Low Ears 55 

Good and Poor Types of Kernels 56 

A Good Germination Box Seven Days after Planting 57 

Effect of Time of Preparing Seed Bed 61 

Approximate Date of Seeding Winter Wheat {Map) 63 

Wheat Districts of the United States (Map) 66 

A Profitable Yield of Wheat 67 

Map of the United States Showing Approximately the Areas to which 

Certain Types of Oats are Adapted 73 

Two Types of Oat Heads 74 

A Field of Good Oats being Harvested with a Modern Self-Binder .... 77 

A Field of Winter Barley Seeded after Corn 80 

A Field of Flax in Bloom 86 

Heads of Four Varieties of Kaffir 88 

Emmer 89 

Map Showing Region of Grass Production in the United States {Map) ... 93 

Side Delivery Rake 95 

Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker 96 

A Field of Good Grass {Timothy) 97 

The Hay Loader in Operation 98 

Rows of Timothy 99 

Field of Timothy Plants for Selection 101 

Variations in Timothy 102 

Sudan Grass, a New Acquisition . -. 107 

A Clover Field in Blossom 110 

Map Showing the Acreage of Red Clover in the United States and Canada . 112 

A Clover Buncher Attached to a Mowing Machine 116 

Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land 117 

(13) 



14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGB 

Pasturing Sweet Clover in Kansas 119 

Map of the United States and Canada, Showing Acreage of Alfalfa. . . 121 

Alfalfa Out-yields Other Hay Crops 124 

A Standing Field of Alfalfa 126 

Curing Alfalfa Hay in Shocks 128 

Comparison of Hogs Fed on Corn and on Alfalfa 129 

A Well-Set Cluster of Alfalfa Pods 131 

Sheep Pasturing on Hilly Land {Color Plate) 132 

Live Stock on Pasture 133 

Hay Making Scene (Millet) 138 

Good Pasture Land 141 

Field of Iron Cowpeas Planted in One-fifth Rows and Cultivated Three 

Times 145 

Hairy Vetch and Rye Growing Together 150 

Millet Makes an Excellent Catch Crop 152 

Making Hogs of Themselves 154 

Harvesting Field Beans with a Harvester 157 

Soy Beans 159 

Crimson Clover 160 

A Peanut Plant 162 

Harvesting and Curing Peanuts 165 

Root Crops (Map) 167 

A Load of Mangels 168 

Cross Section of an Easily Constructed Pit for Roots 170 

The Potato Crop 173 

The Condition of Seed Potatoes Depends on Character of Storage 176 

A Potato Planter 177 

Agricultural Progress in the United States and Germany (Chart) 181 

Sugar Beet 182 

A Good Stand and Vigorous Growth of Sugar Beets 184 

A Field of Sugar Cane 188 

A Good Cotton Plant, Showing Good Base Limbs 192 

Cotton Grown by Single Stalk Method 195 

Turning Under Crimson Clover for Cotton 198 

A Field of Cotton 200 

Field of Virginia Heavy Tobacco 204 

Field of Cigar Leaf Tobacco 205 

Tobacco Plant-bed 206 

A Plant Ready to Set in Field 210 

Fire-curing Barn 212 

Flue-curing Barn 213 

The Manner in which Canada Thistles Spread by Underground Root- 
stocks 218 

The Canada Thistle 220 

Green Foxtail 221 

Quack Grass 221 

Field Dodder 222 

Flax Dodder 222 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 15 

PAGE 

Alfalfa Dodder 222 

BucKHORN OR Nakrow-leaved Plantain 223 

Common or Broad-leaved Plantain 224 

Pigweed 225 

Lamb's Quarters or Smooth Pigweed 226 

Wild Mustard 227 

Shepherd's Purse 228 

cocklebur 230 

Field Bindweed 231 

Anthracnose of Bean 240 

Enlarged Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes 242 

Smut op Corn 245 

Loose Smut of Wheat 246 

Smut of Oats 247 

Young Cotton Plant Affected by Cotton Wilt 248 

Chinch Bug 253 

The Clover Mite 254 

Clover Root Borer 255 

The Cotton Worm 256 

Fall Army Worm 257 

Hessian Fly 257 

Green Bug or Spring Grain Aphis 258 

Southern Corn Root Worm 259 

Cotton Boll Weevil 259 

Tobacco Flea Beetle 259 

Southern Tobacco Horn Worm 260 

Western Corn Root Worm 261 

Wheat Joint Worm 261 

Larva of Isosoma Grande in Wheat Straw 262 

A Lime Sulphur Cooking Outfit 267 

Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas 271 

Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas 272 

Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes 274 

Treating Grain with Formalin for Smut 275 



PART I 
FARM CROPS 



(17) 



CHAPTER 9 

Crop Improvement 

By C. F. Noll 
Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania State College 

The development of varieties and strains of our farm crops which 
have great productiveness or superior merit in other respects is a matter 
of great interest to all agriculturists. Increase in yield due to natural 
productiveness of a variety results in a gain which is maintained year 
after year without additional cost of fertilizer or expense in culture. 
Such gains are of much economic importance, as shown by the differences 
secured in many variety tests. At the Pennsylvania State College Experi- 
ment Station, where varieties of various crops are tested under the same 
conditions, there are some which outyield others by as much as fifty per 
cent. Here the good yielding varieties are grown with just the same 
expense as the poor ones, except for the slight additional cost of handling 
the increase in crop. Similar results have been secured at experiment 
stations in nearly every state. 

Plant Selection. — Crop improvement or plant breeding is often 
looked upon as a new thing, but ever since man has been growing plants, 
they have gradually been modified by seed selection. All of our culti- 
vated plants come from wild forms, but some of them have been so changed 
that they could not now perpetuate their race if left to shift for them- 
selves. Within the memory of men now living, the fruits of tomatoes 
have been developed from the size of a walnut to several times as large, 
and other changes have been effected which have made them more desir- 
able for table use. Though plant improvement has been thus going on 
for ages, only within the past few decades has there been great general 
interest in this work, and only of late have some of the fundamental 
principles been understood. 

Man originates to a very limited extent desirable changes in the 
plants with which he works. He is dependent chiefly upon changes 
which occur naturally, and all that he does is to take advantage of these 
changes and perpetuate the forms which are the most suitable for his 
purpose. He cannot, for example, make the pole lima beans over into 
the dwarf form, but when dwarf plants are found in a field of lima beans, 
he can save seed of these plants -and perpetuate and multiply a race of 
dwarf lima beans. 

Kinds of Variation. — No two plants are exactly alike, but most of 
the variations are of no significance to the plant breeder. They may be 

19 



20 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



due to differences of environment, and in this case will not be inherited. 
If a hill of corn is heavily manured, the stalks and ears will be larger 
than where manure is withheld, but seed from these favored hills is not 
necessarily any better than seed from plants not so well fertilized. How- 
ever, variations may arise which are hereditary and which may be the 
beginning of new varieties. When the variations are in the yield or size 
of plant, usually one cannot distinguish the difference between the varia- 
tions which are hereditary and those which are not, except by a study of 
the progeny of the plants. When the variations are in color or form. 




Variations in Timothy.^ 



one may have less difficulty in picking out those which could be used to 
develop new strains or varieties. 

Hybridization. — Hybridization means the crossing of plants of dif- 
ferent species or different varieties. It is accomplished by taking the 
pollen from a flower of one of the plants to be crossed and placing it on 
the pistil of a flower of the other. Care must always be exercised to pre- 
vent the plant-producing seed from being fertilized with its own pollen 
or with foreign pollen carried by the wind or by insects. 

While there has been a good deal of mystery to many in regard to 
the crossing of plants and a disposition to regard hybrids as of superior 

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From," Plant Breeding," by Bailey. 



CROP IMPROVEMENT 



21 



merit, the cross-fertilization is usually easily accomplished, and, on the 
other hand, the varieties produced by crossing are not necessarily of supe- 
rior merit. Crossing of plants for the most part results in new com- 
binations of parental characters. By crossing a yellow pear tomato and a 
large red one, one could produce a red pear tomato and a large yellow one. 
If a variety of wheat with bearded heads and white grains is crossed with a 
variety with smooth heads and red grains, there could be produced a bearded 
wheat with red grains and a smooth wheat with white grains. By selection 
and propagation the characters become fixed and give new varieties. 




Note the Variation in the Second Generation Hybrids. ^ 



Choice of Varieties. — In attempting to improve a crop one should 
first endeavor to secure a first-class variety. Because of the great dif- 
ference in varieties, if the poorer yielding ones were chosen and an 
attempt were made to improve them in productiveness, it is not likely 
that they could be made better than varieties already in existence. 

Variety testing is a rather simple matter, but some precautions must 
be observed if the results are to be dependable. The main considerations 
are as follows: 

1. The varieties should be tested on as uniform soil as possible of 
the kind on which the field crops are to be grown. 

1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 



22 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

2. The plats should be long and narrow rather than short and broad, 

and should extend across inequalities in the land rather than 
parallel with them. 

3. A known standard variety should be planted in every third or 

fourth plat for comparison. 

4. Trials should be conducted for a number of years and the choice 

of a variety based upon the average performance rather than 

upon the results of only one year. 
Suggestions are given in this chapter for the improvement of a few 
crops. The methods of procedure with others would be similar, depend- 
ing chiefly upon how the blossoms are fertilized and upon methods of 
propagation. 

CORN 

Special care must be exercised in the purchase of seed-corn. This 
crop tends to become adapted to local conditions and may not do well 
when removed to different localities. Especially is there likely to be a 
failure to mature when seed from a locality having a longer season is 
bought. On the other hand, a wise selection of seed should enable a 
farmer to adapt his corn better to his own conditions. 

Most of our best known varieties have thus been developed by con- 
sistent selection of seed for a number of years on the same farm. The 
well-known Learning variety was developed by J. S, Learning in Clinton 
County, Ohio, by continuous selection, from a variety bought in Hamilton 
County, Ohio, in 1855. By selection along the same line, this variety 
was made very uniform. Reid's Yellow Dent, a very popular variety of 
a well-defined type, originated with a cross between two varieties planted 
in the same iSeld by Robert Reid in 1846. The type was fixed in this 
case also by continuous selection. Most farmers could not do better than 
test a number of varieties to find a good one and then by careful selection 
of seed try to make it better. 

The Ear-Row Method. — The most rapid improvement of corn is 
accomplished by some ear-row (or ear-to-row) method of breeding. There 
are a number of methods in use which vary in detail. By ear-row plant- 
ing is meant the planting of each ear to be tested in a row by itself to 
determine its productiveness and other desirable qualities. The rows 
should be of such a length that not over half of the seed on an ear need 
be planted. If the rows are three and one-half feet apart and the hills 
three feet apart, forty-two hills will comprise approximately one one- 
hundredth of an acre. Five or six grains should be planted in a hill and 
when the corn is up, it should be thinned to three stalks per hill. Mixed 
seed of the variety should be planted for a check every sixth row. During 
the growing season the rows should be observed and desirable or undesir- 
able characteristics noted. 

Each row should be harvested separately. Since the yield of stover 



CROP IMPROVEMENT 



23 



is of only minor importance, it does not matter whether the plants are 
cut or not, but they must be husked separately and the corn ears weighed. 
After the yields of the ear-rows have been obtained, any one of a number 
of methods for continuing the work may be followed. The simplest way 
is to take the remnants of the best ears as shown by the ear-row test, 
shell these together and plant in an isolated seed plat the next year. 
From this plat the diseased and weak stalks should be removed before the 
pollen is shed. Seed should be saved from the best rows in the ear-row 
plat for field planting the next year. The third year there should be an 
ear-row plat like that of the first year and the ears for this should come 
from the multiplying plat grown the second year. The seed of the main 
crop the third year should come from the multiplying plat and from the 
part of the field in which the seed from the ear-rows was planted. This 




The Ear-to-Row Test Plat with Corn Husked, Showing a Method Used in 
Ascertaining Which Seed Ears Have Yielded Best.^ 



method provides for an ear-row plat and a multiplying plat on alternate 
years. 

Ideals in Selection of Corn. — Besides attempting to secure greater 
productiveness in a variety of corn, one who would improve the crop 
should seek to adapt the variety in length of growing season to the local- 
ity in which it is grown. In a general way the best varieties are those 
which require about all of the season for development and yet can be 
depended upon to mature before frost. 

The stalks should be of medium size and able to stand up well. 
The ears should be of medium height from the ground, with a rather short 
shank, and should droop somewhat rather than stand erect. By con- 
tinuous selection for high and low ears for five years at the Ohio Experi- 
ment Station, two strains were developed from one variety with a 

» From Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
11 



24 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

difference in height of ear of over two feet. Here the low-eared strain 
was the earher and gave the greatest average yield.* 

The ears should be of good size, should have medium size cobs, 
should be fairly uniform in color and type of kernel and should be attrac- 
tive in appearance. The so-called show points of the ears are of less 
economic importance than was at one time thought, but corn that looks 
good finds the best market when sold for seed. 

In the above discussion it has been assumed that the corn is grown 
primarily for grain. Ensilage varieties should have a rather large, leafy 
stalk besides a good ear, and may be somewhat later in maturing than 
varieties for grain. 

WHEAT, OATS AND BARLEY 

In the case of wheat, oats and barley, variations frequently occur 
within a variety which make it worth while to search for those which are 
better than the parent variety and to multiply them as new strains. 

First Year. — Go through the field and select choice heads, taking 
as many as can be planted separately, remembering that really good 
strains are more likely to be found in a large number than in a small 
number. 

Second Year. — Plant the seed of these heads each in a separate row. 
Make the rows a foot apart and plant the grains four inches apart in the 
row. The same number of grains should be planted from each head, 
which may be twenty-five or thirty. 

When ripe, the number of plants in each row should be determined, 
the rows should be cut separately and the yield of each gotten. 

Third Year. — A number of ounces of seed of each strain should now 
be available. If 100 head-rows has been planted the year before, about 
twenty of the best should be sown this year. These should be sown 
under field conditions and the parent variety should be sown for a check 
and put into every third plat. A good size of plat is sixteen feet long 
and two rows wide, the rows being eight inches apart and the plats ten 
inches apart. These grains can be planted thus side by side, for they do 
not readily cross-fertilize. 

Fourth Year. — By the fourth year there Avill be enough seed for a 
larger plat which may be sown with a grain drill. A good plan is to 
shut off the middle hoe, put in a partition and sow at one time two plats 
of four or five drill rows each, depending upon whether the drill used has 
nine hoes or eleven. As before, the parent variety should be sown in 
every third plat. Only the most promising strains should be continued. 

Fifth and Succeeding Years. — If desired, the plats may be made 
larger than the fourth year, but the arrangement of plats should be the 
same. Only those which are a decided improvement on the parent variety 
should be retained. 



* Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin No, 282, Corn Experiments, by C. G. Williams and F. A. Wclton. 



CROP IMPROVEMENT 25 

Crossing of Varieties in Small Grain Breeding.- — Different varieties 
may be crossed for new combinations of characters as discussed before. 
The first generation from the cross will look like one parent in respect 
to some characters and like the other parent in others. The seed of each 
plant should be kept separate and planted like the head-rows in selection 
work. Usually it will be found that the progeny of these parent plants 
are not uniform. In that case the grain from each plant must be kept 
separate and planted again in separate rows as before and this must be 
kept up until all the plants from a parent are alike in all of their visible 
characters. Those that are uniform should be considered pure strains, 
and after this the testing may proceed as with selections from the third 
year on. 

Varieties of these crops should be improved in production first of 
all, but also in resistance to disease and stiffness of straw. In the case 
of wheat, the milling quality of the grain is important, and in oats, from 
the market point of view, the color of grain, white being the preferred 
color. 

Many of the older varieties of these crops owe their origin to selec- 
tions made by farmers and some to crosses. Of the varieties of wheat, 
Fultz was originated by Abraham Fultz in 1862 from a selection from 
Lancaster; Gold Coin, which was an accidental seedling variation, was 
selected from Deihl Mediterranean; Fulcaster, the well-known red- 
bearded variety, resulted from a cross between Fultz and Lancaster, made 
by S. M. Schindel, Hagerstown, Md. 

POTATOES 

Production of Seedlings. — New varieties of potatoes originate from 
seedlings. The seeds are produced in the true fruits, which come after 
the blossoms and look like little green tomatoes. These fruits or balls, 
as they are commonly called, are produced very sparingly and in some 
seasons none are seen. The seed should be sown indoors early in the spring 
and the young potato plants handled like tomatoes until they are set out 
in the field. Transplanting to pots increases their vigor. The first year 
few reach full development and most do not for two or more years. The 
seedlings, as a rule, are quite variable and few if any look just like the 
parents. Each should be regarded as a new variety and given a number 
and kept separate as long as grown. 

The work is very interesting and may give varieties better than those 
already on the market, but most seedlings are of inferior merit. 

Hill and Tuber Selection. — Potatoes vary in the hill and it is possible 
to improve a variety by selection of the best hills or the best tubers. It 
is a good practice to dig by hand a great many hills and save seed of some 
of the best for a seed plat the next year. This seed plat should be gone 
over and weak and diseased hills removed and the remainder saved for 



26 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



the field planting. Greater progress will be made by keeping the tubers 
from selected hills separate and testing these as new strains. Each should 
have a number by which it will always be known. The first year ten 
hills of each might be planted in rows side by side with the parent variety 
every third place. The best only should be saved and the next and suc- 
ceeding years the plats may be made larger. 

Tul^er unit selection should start with selected tubers of the same 
size which are desirable in appearance and free from disease. These are 
each cut into four pieces, which are planted in succession, one tuber after 




Variation in Yield of Potatoes from Selected Tubers. i 



the other, with some space between the hills from the different tubers. 
When mature, the four hills from a tuber are dug together and the future 
selection based upon the yield of tubers and their appearance. These 
must be designated by numbers as in other selection work. The next 
year single row plats of ten or more hills each of the most promising may 
be planted, with the parent variety in every third plat as before. 

Potatoes may be improved in productiveness, disease resistance and 
quality of tubers. There is a difference in susceptibility, especially to 

1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 



CROP IMPROVEMENT 



early and late blight, and perhaps to other serious diseases. Only strains 
of high market quality should be perpetuated. The tubers should be of 
medium size, smooth in outline, flat oval or flat oblong in shape and have 
shallow eyes. 

Where carefully conducted, these methods of selection have resulted 
in the improvement of the variety. 

Opportunities in Crop Improvement. — There is need in every com- 
munity that at least one farmer make a specialty of producing and sell- 
ing improved farm seeds. Such work is usually very remunerative, besides 
being of value to the whole neighborhood. 

Testing of varieties and the improvement of certain crops may be 
made a matter of community interest, especially where there is some 
farmers' organization. There is also the opportunity of forming clubs or 
associations for crop improvement, which may be quite local or state- 
wide, as in the case of many state crop improvement associations now 
in existence. 

REFERENCES 
"Genetics." Walter. 
"Cereals in America." Hunt. 
"Plant Breeding." Bailey and Gilbert. 
"Fundamentals of Plant Breeding." Coulter. 
Ontario Agricultural College Bulletin 228. "Farm Crops." 

Farmers' Bulletin 382, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Adulteration of Forage Plant 
Seeds." 



CHAPTER 2 

The Rotation of Crops 

In all of the older agricultural districts the rotation of crops is recog- 
nized as an essential to successful farming. With the prevailing price of 
corn, farmers on the best lands in the corn-growing belt have found it 
profitable to grow corn after corn for a number of years. In like manner, 
on the best wheat land in Minnesota, the Dakotas and Canada, wheat 
grown continuously has proven a profitable enterprise. In that region 
farmers find no good argument in favor of fencing their farms, construct- 
ing farm buildings, feeding cattle and milking cows, when they can make 
as much money or more by a system of farming that occupies their time 
for a little more than one-half the year and allows them leisure during 
the remainder of the year. A single crop system, while successful for a 
time, however, will not prove successful in the long run. 

Successful farming calls not only for the best possible utilization of 
the soil and the maintenance of its fertility, but also demands the fullest 
possible utilization of the labor that is to be employed. The efficiency 
of the labor of men and teams on farms is measured largely by the pro- 
portion of time for which they are profitably employed. In nearly all 
other enterprises labor is fully and continuously employed. In order 
that farming may compete with other enterprises for labor, it must be 
likewise employed on the farm. 

Rotations Defined. — A crop rotation is a succession of crops grown 
on the same land. A good crop rotation is a systematic succession of the 
three general classes of farm crops, namely, cultivated crops, grain crops 
and grass crops, in such a way as to give large yields and provide pasture 
and forage on the farm at the least expense of labor and soil fertility. 

The rotation is definite when the crops recur in a fixed order, and it 
is a fixed rotation when they not only recur in a fixed order, but also at 
regular intervals. A rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat and clover 
and timothy is a definite one, regardless of whether the clover and timothy 
remain for one, two or three years, but it becomes a fixed rotation when 
not only the order of the crops is named, but the length of time of each 
crop is also specified. 

Purpose of Rotations. — A rotation of croj^s (1) provides for maintain- 
ing the soil in good tilth; (2) supplies organic matter and nitrogen; (3) 
prevents destructive outbreaks of insect pests; (4) reduces plant diseases; 
(5) provides for the economical destruction of weeds; (6) maintains crop 
yields; (7) distributes the labor of men and horses; (8) saves labor in 
cultivation of land; (9) keeps the soil occupied; (10) provides for a 

(28) 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 29 

balanced removal of plant food; (11) systematizes farming; and (12) may 
control toxic substance?<. 

Maintain Good Physical Condition of Soil. — Deep-rooted plants, 
such as alfalfa and the clovers, improve the physical condition of the 
subsoil as a result of root penetration. The cultivation given to inter- 
tilled crops, such as corn, potatoes, beets and the truck crops, improves 
the phj'sical condition of the surface soil. Such frequent cultivation may 
tend to reduce the organic matter of the soil, but this will be largely over- 
come by the stubble and roots of the grasses and clovers that follow the 
grain crops. 

Conserve Organic Matter and Nitrogen. — Extensive rotation experi- 
ments at the Minnesota Experiment Station show that standard rotations, 




On the left is corn growing on land that has grown com continuously for 
19 years. On the right is corn in a five-year rotation. Both fields were 
planted on the same day to the same kind of corn. The yield on the field 
to the left is 27.5 bushels to the acre. The field on the right gives 61.3 
bushels an acre. These are the average yields for ten years. 

which include an inter-tilled crop, small grains and grasses with clover, 
all gave net profits. A four-years' rotation of millet, barley, corn and oats 
was no better than four years of continuous growing of wheat. All of 
these are classified as exhaustive crops. They cause a reduction in both 
the organic matter and nitrogen supply of the soil. Land cropped 
continuously to wheat, corn, potatoes or mangels for a period of ten years, 
showed a loss of 1100 pounds of nitrogen and 20,000 pounds of carbon 
per acre. In twelve standard rotations covering the same period of time, 
there was a gain of 300 pounds of nitrogen per acre, while the carbon and 
humus in the soil was maintained and in some cases increased. In the 
standard rotations eight tons of manure per acre were applied once during 
the rotation. 

Provide for Extermination of Weeds. — Noxious weeds often cause 
a serious loss in farming. Weeds not only rob the crops of plant food and 

1 From "Farm Management" by Boss. Courtesy of Lyons and Carnahan, Chicago. 



30 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

moisture, thus reducing the yield and sometimes causing absolute failure, 
but thej'^ entail additional labor in the process of cultivation. Many 
weeds grow best in certain kinds of crops. For example, mustard is a 
common weed in the small grain crops in the prairie states. The seeds 
ripen a little earlier than the grain, and in the process of harvesting are 
freely shattered and seed the land for the succeeding year. Where small 
grain is groAvn continuously this weed becomes a serious pest. Its 
extermination calls for an inter-tilled crop following the small grain. 
Pigweed, bindweed, foxtail and crab-grass are common in corn and 
potato fields, but they seldom become serious in small grain fields or in 
grass land; consequently, cultivated crops followed by grasses and small 
grains make for extermination of these weeds. Daisies, wild carrot and 
buckhorn are common weeds in hay fields, and generally grow worse the 
longer the land remains in hay. Such weeds, however, give no trouble 
in cultivated fields devoted to corn, potatoes, etc., and the cultivation 
helps to exterminate them. 

Lessen Insect Depredations. — Most insect pests live upon some 
particular crop or a few closely related crops. A crop or related crops, 
grown continuously on the same land, affords an opportunity for the 
associated insects to multiply and become very numerous. The remedy 
is to plant the infested fields with a crop which will not be injured by the 
pest in question. Unless these insects have the power of migration they 
will perish for the want of suitable food or for lack of conditions suitable 
for multiplication. 

However efficient the rotation of crops may be in the extermination 
of insects, some rotations may prove not only ineffective but actually 
disastrous. For example, land that has been long in grass sometimes 
becomes so infested with wire-worms as to cause a practical failure when 
devoted to corn. Grass affords conditions favorable to the multiplication 
of wire-worms, and they may live in the soil sufficiently long after the 
grass is; plowed up to destroy a crop of corn which follows. Under such 
conditions fall plowing or bare fallow should precede the planting of the 
corn. The bill bug breeds freely in the bulbous roots of timothy, and 
when timothy sod is plowed late in the spring and planted to corn, this 
insect transfers its attention to the corn with disastrous results. Such 
trouble may be avoided by destroying the existing vegetation some time 
in advance of planting the corn. The insect under such conditions will 
either be starved or forced to leave the field before it is planted to corn. 

Cutworms are a great menace to newly planted tobacco and many 
other crops, but their presence depends largely on the preceding crop. 
Cutworms multiply extensively only in grass land where the eggs are laid 
by the moths. Many similar examples could be cited, and success in 
preventing insect depredation by crop rotation calls for a knowledge of 
the life history and habits of the insect pest concerned. (See Chapter 
76: ''Insect Pests and Their Control.") 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 31 

Reduce Plant Diseases. — Plant diseases, like insect pests, are gen- 
erally restricted to a particular crop or small group of closely related 
crops. The potato scab, so far as is known, is confined solely to potatoes. 
Its presence in the soil prevents the continuous growing of potatoes, and 
calls for a rotation in which the interval between successive potato crops 
is sufficiently long to provide for the disappearance of the disease. In a 
similar manner flax wilt or cotton wilt demands a rotation of crops in 
order to prevent the disease becoming disastrous. Bacterial diseases of 
tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, cabbage and numerous other vegetables, 
the rusts and smuts of small grains, and many other diseases accumulate 
in the soil under the one-crop system. These troubles can be largely 
avoided and the crop-producing power of the soil maintained by intelli- 
gent systems of rotation. The most profitable system for any locality or 
type of farming can generally be ascertained from the state experiment 
station. 

Improve Environment of Crop. — Aside from insect pest, plant diseases 
and weeds which flourish under the one-crop system to the disadvantage 
of the crop, there is another factor inimical to best plant growth. This 
consists of excreta given off by the roots of plants that accumulate in the 
soil to their detriment. As a rule, such excreta are not equally injurious 
to a different class of crops, and a rotation, therefore, lessens the injury. 
The excreted substances are organic in nature and are either changed in 
character or entirely disappear with time, so that the crop giving rise to 
them may be returned to the land after a year or more without injury. 

Rotations Insure Returns. — The old adage, "Don't place all your 
eggs in one basket," applies with equal force in the production of crops. 
Unfavorable conditions in any locality are seldom such as to cause a failure 
of all kinds of crops, although a complete failure of a particular crop in 
a certain locality is not uncommon. A rotation of crops which includes 
a variety of crops, therefore, avoids complete failure. 

Prevent Reduced Crop Yields. — The tillage given to a cultivated 
crop, such as corn or potatoes, increases the yield of the crop that follows 
by providing a better physical condition of the soil. In like manner 
legumes leave organic matter and nitrogen in the soil which is utilized to 
the advantage of corn or potatoes which may follow. The cultivation 
given crops destroys weeds to the advantage of crops which follow, and 
which do not receive cultivation. 

Rotations Systematize Farming. — A well-planned rotation of crops 
enables the farmer to know definitely what is to be done each year, and 
makes possible an estimation of the general expenses and returns that 
may be expected. It also enables him to plan his work and secure his 
materials, such as seed, fertilizers, etc., in advance of the time they are 
needed. 

Rotations Distribute Labor. — A good rotation of crops will enable 
the farmer to do a larger proportion of his own work than would be possible 



32 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

if the land were devoted to one crop. This enables him to utilize his 
own labor to the fullest possible advantage, and to reduce the expense 
necessary for hired labor. It is important, therefore, in selecting crops 
for a rotation, to select those that will compete with each other for the 
labor of men and teams as little as possible. The common rotation of 
corn, oats, wheat and hay fulfils these requirements fairly well. To 
illustrate, the preparation of land and seeding of oats take place in the 
early spring. Between the seeding time of oats and the time for planting 
corn there is sufficient time to prepare the land for the latter crop. The 
cultivation of corn will precede the harvest of hay and oats. The prep- 
aration of land for winter wheat will take place after the harvest period 
and prior to the harvest of corn. This fully occupies the time of the 
farmer during the growing season. There will sometimes be conflict 
between the harvest of wheat and hay, and the cultivation of corn, necessi- 
tating a little extra labor at that time. 

Essentials of a Good Rotation. — A good crop rotation should contain 
(1) an inter-tilled crop, (2) a cash crop, (3) crops to feed, and (4) a crop 
to supply humus and nitrogen. All crops may be roughly classified 
under three heads, namely: exhaustive, intermediate and restorative. 
All crops, when harvested, remove from the land more or less plant food, 
and in this sense they are exhaustive. No crop restores to the soil any 
considerable amount of plant food unless it is plowed under or allowed 
to decay on the surface of the soil. Notwithstanding these facts, certain 
crops leave land in poorer condition for subsequent crops than it was 
before. These are designated as exhaustive crops, and include wheat, 
oats, rye, barley and millet. Their ill effect upon subsequent crops may 
be due to any one or a coml^ination of a number of factors, among which 
are physical condition of the soil, injurious insects, plant diseases, reduc- 
tion of soil moisture and a failure to supply either organic matter or nitro- 
gen in any appreciable quantity. 

It is wise, therefore, to select as many restorative crops as possible 
and so arrange the crops that these will be followed by the exhaustive 
crops. These two classes of crops should alternate as far as possible. 
In conjunction with this, one should select crops that will yield well 
and for which there is a demand, either for feeding on the farm or as a 
cash crop. The best varieties of the crops entering into the rotation 
should always be used. These will be determined largely by local con- 
ditions. 

Sequence of Crops. — It is a good plan to follow a crop with a long 
growing season by one having a short growing season. This is typified 
when corn is followed by oats. In turn oats or barley is removed from 
the land in ample time for seeding winter wheat, which occupies the land 
for a rather long period. In this connection it is wise to provide in the 
rotation a place where manure may be hauled directly from stables and 
barnyards and applied to the fields. Where there is an abundance of 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 33 

manure and corn is extensively and advantageously used as feed for live- 
stock, corn may be grown two years in succession, especially when the 
soil is fertile and manure is available for both the first and second crops. 
It is desirable that crops be arranged in such a way that the improving 
effects of each crop shall be regularly received and the ill effects of the 
exhaustive crops be systematically neutralized by the crop that follows. 

Length of Rotations. — The length of crop rotations will be deter- 
mined by local conditions and the character of crops grown, together 
with the value of land and cost of labor. Crops that are costly to estab- 
lish, such as alfalfa, should occupy the land for two or more years in order 
to minimize the annual cost of production. The length of time that a 
crop remains productive is also a factor. The annual cost of seed and 
the preparation of the land for the crop is one-half or one-third as much 
if the crop is continued for two or three years respectively, as it is if 
allowed to remain only one year. So long as the yield is satisfactory, 
it generally pays to continue the crop. This tends toward a longer crop 
rotation. 

In many localities where general farm crops prevail, a seven-year 
rotation is common, such for example as corn, oats, wheat and mixed 
clover and timothy for four years. Such long rotations with only one 
legume in them do not make for increased soil fertility, unless all the 
crops produced are fed upon the farm and the manure returned to the 
fields. Where cash crops dominate the type of farming, short rotations 
may be better. A rotation of corn, wheat and clover or of potatoes, 
wheat and clover affords the maximum of cash crops, while the frequency 
of clover in the rotation tends to maintain the nitrogen supply of the soil. 
Such short rotations also maintain the soil in good tilth as a result of the 
frequent plowing and abundant tillage. 

What Crops to Grow.— The crops to be grown in a rotation will be 
determined by a number of factors, as soil adaptation, length of growing 
season, market demands, transportation facilities, and the system of 
farming that prevails. Aside from these facts there is another considera- 
tion that must not be overlooked. Usually it is unwise to follow a crop 
like tobacco, which is considered a gross feeder, with another crop such 
as corn having similar feeding habits. Such a practice is permissible 
only on very fertile soil or where the quality of the following crops is to be 
influenced through reduction in organic matter or available plant food. 
For example, coarseness in tobacco might be reduced by having it pre- 
ceded by corn. 

When to Apply Manure and Fertilizers. — It is generally advisable 
to apply barnyard manure to those crops in the rotation that have a long 
growing season or a high money -value, or to those that are considered 
gross feeders, such as corn. In the absence of manure, the same rule 
will apply in the applications of commercial fertilizers. When manure is 
supplemented with fertilizers, the fertilizers are best adapted to crops of 



34 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



short growing season or to those influenced in quality by the character 
or form of a particular fertilizer ingredient. In this connection it should 
be borne in mind that the leg"umes require only mineral fertilizers and that 
crops that demand much nitrogen should follow the legumes. 

Some Suggested Rotations. — Crops should naturally follow each 
other in such a way that each crop paves the way for the one that is to 
follow. Best results will be secured when plants are not compelled to do 
their part at a disadvantage. Wherever feasible, a large proportion of the 
product of a rotation should be food for livestock. This provides for the 
maintenance of soil fertility. 

In the northeastern part of the United States a rotation of com, 
oats, wheat and hay with various modifications dominates most of the 
general and livestock types of farming. By omitting oats a three-crop 
rotation results, which, if restricted to three years in length, makes for 
soil fertility, provides a cash crop and at the same time furnished an abun- 
dance of livestock food and bedding. This may be supplemented with 
alfalfa, thus increasing the protein supply. On soils poorly adapted to 
wheat this crop may be omitted and oats will take its place. In the north- 
ernmost latitudes and at higher elevations the acreage of corn will be 
reduced and that of oats and hay increased. Where markets are favor- 
able and the soil is adapted to potatoes, this crop may be substituted for a 
portion of the corn, thus increasing the cash crops at the expense of forage. 

Wheat generally proves a better crop in which to seed clover and the 
grasses than does oats. In most parts of this section of the country the 
grasses are seeded in the autumn and the clover seeded early in the spring. 
Further south, both clover and the grasses may be seeded in the autumn. 
The four staple crops above mentioned may be arranged into several 
rotations with manure and fertilizers applied as suggested in the following 
tabulation. 

Method of Fertilizing Crop Rotations.* 



3 Years. 


4 Years. 


5 Years. 


7 Years. 


Per Acre. 








1 


Corn: 6 to 10 loads of manure and 25 lbs. of phos- 
phoric acid. 


1 


1 


1 


2 


Corn: 6 to 10 loads of manure and 25 lbs. of phos- 
phoric acid. 




2 


2 


3 


Oats: no fertilizer. 


2 


3 


3 


4 


Wheat: 50 lbs. each of phosphoric acid and pot- 
ash. 


3 


4 


4 


5 


Clover and timothy: no fertiUzer. 






5 


G 

7 


Timothy: 25 lbs. each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid 

and potash. 
Timothy: 25 lbs. each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid 

and potash. 



* Roiighly speaking, 25 pounds each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash may be obtained by 
buying 150 pounds nitrate of soda, 175 pounds of acid phosphate and 50 pounds of muriate of potash. 
The cost of the ingredients may be estimated from the following prices per pound, which will vary accord- 
ing to circumstances: nitrogen, 18 cents; phosphoric acid, 4 cents; and potash, 5 cents. 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 35 

In the trucking regions of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and 
Virginia, two crops may frequently be secured in one season. Over much 
of this region tomatoes may be set as late as June 1st. This gives oppor- 
tunity to grow a quick-maturing crop before the land is needed for tomatoes. 
If hay is needed crimson clover may be seeded in the fall and cut for hay 
the next spring, before the land is needed for tomatoes. Where canneries 
are available, early peas may be harvested before time to set tomatoes. 
This gives two crops in one season, both of which provide for the opera- 
tion of the cannery and prolong its season of activity. Crimson clover 
may be seeded in the tomatoes at the last cultivation, and growth turned 
under the following spring for the benefit of a succeeding crop. 

In this district a two-year rotation in which four crops are grown is 
found to be quite successful. Two of these are cash crops and two are 
renovating crops. The cash crops are corn and either potatoes or toma- 
toes. The renovating crops are crimson clover or soy beans or winter 
rye mixed with winter vetch. This makes the purchase of nitrogen in 
fertilizers unnecessary. Acid phosphate and potash are applied in moder- 
ate quantities and generally to the cash crops only. This system, without 
any manure and Avith the occasional use of lime, maintains the fertility 
of the soil. 

In portions of Ohio and Indiana a three-year rotation of corn, wheat 
and clover is common. One strong point in this rotation is that one plow- 
ing answers for three crops. When the clover sod is plowed for corn in 
the spring the ground breaks up easily and makes an ideal seed-bed for 
corn. The cultivation given the corn provides a good seed-bed for 
wheat with no other preparation than thorough disking and harrowing 
of the corn stubble. This, of course, necessitates a removal of the corn 
stalks sufficiently early to seed wheat. It is not applicable where the 
growing season is too short. This rotation not only economizes in labor 
as above suggested, but makes a good distribution of labor. Further- 
more, it provides for rather continuous occupation of the soil. If the sod 
devoted to corn is not plowed until spring and corn is followed by fall 
seeding of wheat in which gi-ass and clover is seeded, the soil will be subject 
to erosion only during the time it is in corn. Erosion in this case may 
take place in times of heavy rains and on rolling land, by the water run- 
ning down the furrows between the corn rows. This may generally be 
overcome by having the rows and cultivation at right angles to the 
slope. 

This is a fairly good rotation for the stockman and dairy farmer. 
Corn furnishes the material for the silo, while clover hay supplies the 
protein in which corn is deficient, thus giving a well-balanced ration. 
The wheat straw makes good bedding, while the wheat may be either sold 
or exchanged for concentrates. On farms having no permanent pasture 
the clover and timothy may be left for another year, cut once and pastured 
afterwards^ or, if necessary, it may be pastured throughout the fourth 



36 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



year. If used for this purpose, both timothy and alsike clover should 
be seeded with the red clover. 

The following five- and six-year rotations have been found successful 



I 19J4 Timothy 

1915 Corn 

1916 Oafs 

1917 Wheal 
191S Clover 



1914 Clover 

1915 Timothy 

1916 Corn 

1917 Oats 

1918 Wheat 



1914 Wheat 

1915 Clover 

1916 Timothy 

1917 Corn 

1918 Oats 



1914 Oats 

1915 Wheat 

1916 Clover 

1917 Timothy 

1918 Corn 



1914 Corn 

1915 Oats 

1916 Wheat 

1917 Clover 

1918 Timothy 




A Five- Year Rotation. 



Field. 


1914. 


1915. 


1916. 


1917. 


1918. 


1—25 A 

2— " 

3— " 

4— " 

5— " 


Timothy 

Clover 

Wheat 

Oats 

Corn 


Corn 

Timothy 

Clover 

Wheat 

Oats 


Oats 

Corn 

Timothy 

Clover 

Wheat 


Wheat 

Oats 

Corn 

Timothy 

Clover 


Clover 

^^'heat 

Oats 

Corn 

Timothy 



in the Great Plains area: (1) corn; wheat; brome-grass; brome-grass; 
oats, barley or emmer; (2) corn; wheat; brome-grass; brome-grass; 
brome-grass; oats, barley or emmer. In these rotations the wheat may 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS 37 

be either winter or spring, and, furthermore, wheat may be substituted 
for any of the last-mentioned crops in either of the rotations. 

Space will not permit the enumeration of all the rotations that are 
possible. With a clear understanding of the underlying principles and a 
knowledge concerning the utilization and market value of the crops to be 
grown, any farmer may plan crop rotations best suited to his farm. 

Methods of Planning and Recording Rotations. — It is a principle 
that there should be as many fields as there are years and crops in the 
rotation, unless two crops can be harvested from the land in one year. 
It is also advisable that the fields be as nearly of equal size and produc- 
tivity as possible. This provides for uniformity in distribution of work 
from year to year, as well as in the utilization of the products. Where 
livestock dominates the type of farming, it will often be found advisable 
to adopt two rotations, one known as the major and the other as the 
minor rotation. The former will include the staple crops grown both 
for feed and market, while the latter provide soiling and annual pasture 
crops. In such a scheme the minor rotation should be located near the 
farmstead where the small fields will be easily accessible. The tabulation 
on preceding page shows how a five-field rotation may be planned, and 
serves as a record of what has been and what will be in every field in any 
particular year. 

REFERENCES 

"Field Crops." Wilson and Warbiirton. 

"Soils and Fertilizers." Snyder, pap;es 131-159. 

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 109. "Rotation of Crops." 

Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 182. "Maintenance of Fertility." 

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 135. "Crop Rotations." 




38 



The Height of Stalks and Positions of Ears May be Greailv l hanged 
BY Selection of Seed for these Ch.aracters.i 

'i"c^;^i^i^f Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 282. "Cora Experiments." 



CHAPTER 11 

Corn (Zea Maize) 

The average acre of corn produces more food value than an equal 
area of any other staple crop except potatoes. Corn has a longer season 
of growth than most other staple crops, and, consequently, it more fully 
utilizes the plant food that is made available by processes going on in 
the soil when reasonably warm and moist. It is adapted to a wide range 
of soil conditions. It fits well into the crop rotations without seriously 
competing with other crops for labor. It has a wide range of uses. The 
tillage which the crop receives leaves the soil in excellent condition for 
the crops which follow. 

Classification of Corn. — There are six types of corn: dent, flint, 
sweet, pop, soft and pod. The first four only are of importance in 
America. Fully 90 per cent of the corn grown in North America is of the 
dent type. There are several hundred varieties of. dent corn and a score 
or more varieties of flint corn. The types are classified according to color 
and size. Dent corn is divided into three classes wath reference to size 
and time of maturity, namely: early, medium and late maturing varieties. 
It is also divided according to color into yellow dent, white dent, white 
cap yellow dent and mixed dent varieties. 

Varieties of Corn, — Of the several hundred varieties of dent corn, 
comparatively few are worthy of cultivation in any particular locality; 
and yet one often finds many varieties within a restricted area. Where 
soil conditions are uniform over several counties, one or two varieties 
may be found best suited to the whole of the area. 

Corn is a very minor crop in Canada, the most of it being grown in 
the Province of Ontario. Flint is the prevailing type. In the north- 
eastern part of the United States, including New England, New York, 
Pennsylvania and New Jersey, varieties of flint corn are extensively grown 
on the higher elevations and in the northernmost latitudes. Among the 
best known varieties of this class may be mentioned Longfellow, King 
Phillip, Smut Nose, Stickney's Yellow, Taylor's Improved Flint and 
Davis' Eight Rowed Flint. The prevailing varieties of dent corn in this 
section are Pride of the North, Early Huron Dent, Funk's 90 Day, 
Leaming and numerous strains of white cap dent, seldom having local 
names. 

In the typical corn belt of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri 

and eastern Kansas and Nebraska, the leading varieties are Reed's Yellow 

Dent, Funk's Yellow Dent, Leaming, Reilley's Favorite, Clarage, Hogue's 

Yellow Dent, Hildreth's Yellow Dent, Hiawatha Yellow Dent, Boone 

12 39, 



40 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



County White, Johnson County White, Silver Mine, St. Charles White 
and Kansas Sunflower. 

In the Southern states we have among the large-eared varieties: 
Huffman, Excelsior, Chisholm, McMacnin's Gourdseed, St. Charles 
White, Boone County White, Rockdale, Singleton and Ferguson's Yellow 
Dent. Among the two-eared varieties may be mentioned Lewis' Prolific, 
Hickory King and Neal's Paymaster. Prolific varieties, producing two 
or more ears to a stalk, are Cocke's, Albemarle, Whatley's, Mosby's, 
Hasting's, Marlborough and Batts'. 

In the northern portion of the corn belt, including the states of 
Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas and the northern portions 
of Illinois and Iowa, the most common varieties are Silver King, Pride of 
the North, Wisconsin No. 7, Murdock, Wimple's Yellow Dent, Pickett's 
Yellow Dent and Golden Eagle. 

The best variety for any locahty can be determined only by local 
variety tests. Such tests have been conducted in many counties through 
the effort of the local organizations in co-operation with the state experi- 
ment stations. The results for such tests for sixteen counties in Iowa for 
the year 1911 are given in the following table: 



Variety Test, 1911. 
Average of Sixteen Counties in Iowa. 





Number 

of 
Samples. 


Yield 
per Acre, 

bushels. 


Standing, 
October, 
per cent. 


Strong, 
per cent. 


Weak, 
per cent. 


Dead, 
per cent. 


Barren, 
per cent. 


Farmer's variety test 

One-tenth highest yielding 
One-tenth lowest yielding . 
Imported seed 


966 

97 

97 

128 

190 


54.3 
62.0 
44.5 
53.0 
49.5 


78.0 
81.5 
71.0 
81.5 
72.0 


78.1 
80.5 
73.5 
67.0 
61.5 


14.6 
14.5 
15.0 
27.0 
26.5 


7.3 
5.0 

11.5 
6.0 

12.0 


5.2 
4.4 
6.1 
5 9 


Seed-house seed 


4 6 











Individual Ear Test, 1911. 
Average of Sixteen Counties in Iowa. 





Number 
of 

Samples. 


Yield 
per Acre, 
bushels. 


standing, 
October, 
per cent. 


Strong, 
per cent. 


Weak, 
per cent. 


Dead, 
per cent. 


Barren, 
per cent. 


Individual ears 

One-fourth highe.st yielding 
One-fourth lowest yielding 


1,440 
360 
360 


53.5 
62.0 
43.5 


78.5 
83.0 
71.5 


83.5 

85.5 
77.5 


11.5 
11.5 
11.5 


5.0 

3.0 

11.0 


5.7 
4.5 
7.6 



The large number of samples tested and the average results secured 
make conclusions relative to the differences found in yield and other 
qualities rather definite. It will be noted that one-tenth of the samples 
giving highest yields averaged 62 bushels per acre, while one-tenth of 



CORN 



41 



the samples giving lowest yields average 44.5 bushels per acre, or only 
about two-thirds as much as the best yielding samples. Note also that 
over 100 samples of imported seed averaged less per acre than did nearly 
1000 samples of home-grown seed. Likewise, the 360 ear-to-row tests 
giving the highest yields were no better than the best one-tenth of the 
larger samples tested. One-fourth of the ear-to-row samples giving the 
lowest yield averaged a little more than two-thirds as much as the one- 
fourth giving the highest yields. The results show wide differences and 
emphasize the importance of the farmer selecting for his soil and locality 
the variety that will do best. Such selection will evidently make a great 
difference in the total yield of corn on a given acreage. 




Corn Acreage by States, 1915. 
(Three ciphers omitted.) 

The Chief Corn-Growing States. — In order of their respective pro- 
duction, they are Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Indiana, Kansas, 
Ohio, Texas, Oklahoma and Kentucky. These ten states produce a httle 
more than 70 per cent of all the corn produced in the United States. 
More than 80 per cent of the corn produced in the United States is con- 
sumed within the counties in which it is grown. The great use of corn 
is as a feed for livestock. There are a few counties, especially in the 
State of Illinois, where a considerable portion of the corn is marketed and 
goes outside of the counties in which it is produced. 

North America produces three-quarters of the world's corn, nearly 
all of which is produced within the borders of the United States. Of the 



42 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



remaining one-quarter of the world's production, Europe produces about 
two-thirds and South America and Australia the remainder. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Corn is best adapted to well-drained 
soils that are deep, loamy and warm. Large yields demand a high-water 
capacity of the soil and this is materially increased by deep drainage, 
deep plowing and organic matter. Corn requires a growing season rang- 
ing from 100 to 170 days, through which period the temperature should 
be high and accompanied by warm rains. An abundance of rainfall 
properly distributed is essential. In the typical corn belt the rainfall 
during July and August is most important, and the yield of corn is deter- 
mined to a considerable extent by the rain during these two months. 



ipitipt^tt||iPp[taif^ !!^!!!!|ap i#!pW[T[i||^ 




36 
32 
28 



ZO 



m 



P|:A\ 






ill 



ii 







HIH- 



tfiMiJ 



'-TW£/iAC£ Y/£LO OtF CORN PER ACRi'''^-\ \M\ 1 



WM.^ 



Chart Showing How Closely Corn Yield Follows Amount op Rainfall. 



The accompanying chart shows the average yield of corn for a period of 
fifteen years, together with the July precipitation for the same years. 
There is a fairly close correlation between July rainfall and the average 
yield of corn. 

It is not profitable to grow corn on very poor land. The nature 
of the corn plant is such that it will not produce grain unless the soil is 
sufficiently rich to afford considerable growth of stalk. In general, the 
richer the soil the heavier will be the yield of grain. Some other crops 
will produce fair yields on soil too poor to produce corn. 

Crop Rotation for Com. — Corn cannot be grown continuously on the 
same soil without diminished yields. A rotation of crops is, therefore, 
essential. In this rotation should occur at least one leguminous crop. 



CORN 



43 



East of the Mississippi River and north of Mason and Dixon's Line, 
common red clover is best suited for this purpose. Alfalfa, crimson clover 
and alsike clover may be substituted for it under certain conditions. Over 
a considerable portion of this region the most usual rotation is corn, oats, 
wheat, and clover and timothy. This provides for a rotation ranging 
from four to seven years, depending on the length of time the land is 
left in grass and whether or not corn is grown more than one year in the 
rotation. In this rotation the corn should follow the sod on which may 
be scattered the manure prior to plowing. No other crop is better adapted 
to utilize the available nitrogen and mineral constituents that are slowly 
brought into a state of availability through decomposition of the roots, 
stubble and manure. 

On fertile soils in a high state of cultivation corn may be grown two 
years in succession. This will require sufficient manure to apply on the 
corn land two years in succession, or wall demand an application of com- 
mercial fertilizers for the second year's crop. 

In the South the crops associated with corn in the rotation are quite 
different. In most cases cotton is the chief money crop; cowpeas and 
soy beans are the chief legumes; and winter oats is the principal snftall 
grain. The rotation frequently consists of cotton followed by cotton, 
with cowpeas planted between the cotton rows. The third year the land 
is planted in corn and seeded to winter oats after the corn has been removed. 
After the oats are harvested in the fourth year the land is broadcasted with 
cowpeas, and these harvested for hay. This rotation has proven successful 
in many parts of the cotton belt. 

Many of the experiment stations have tested different rotations. 
The following tabulation gives the average results with corn in two rota- 
tions covering a period of more than twenty years at the Ohio Experiment 
Station : 

Continuous vs. Rotation Corn. Twenty Years' Work. 



System. 



Continuous 
Rotation* . 



Continuous 
Rotation*. 



Continuous 
Rotation* . 



Rotation f. 
Rotation! . 



Treatment. 



None. 
None. 



Manure . 

Manure . 



Com. fert. . 
Com. fert. . 



Manure . 
None. . . 



Application 
per Acre. 



Per Crop. Per 5 Years. 



5 tons 
8 tons 

250 lbs. 
320 lbs-. 



25 tons 
16 tons 

1250 lbs. 
985 lbs. 



Average Yield per Acre, 
bushels. 



1st 
Period. 



26.26 
31.89 

43.13 
40.73 

38.86 
35.78 



2d 

Period. 



16.76 
30.82 

40.11 
49.52 

39.09 
49.54 



3d 

Period. 



10.43 
31.04 

34.62 
59.75 



4th 
Period 



8.44 
20.31 

30.22 
55.83 



28.00 26.83 
53.91 44.10 



8 tons once in 3 years on corn. 
Average of 8 unfertilized plots. 



Aver- 
age 
Yield 

for 

20 
Years. 



15.47 
28.95 

37.02 
51.81 

33.19 
46.49 

60.20t 
35.19f 



* Five-year rotation. f Three-year rotation. J Average for 17 years. 



44 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

It will be noted that where corn was grown continuously the yields 
have declined regardless of the character of the manure or fertilizer 
appHed, whereas corn grown in a rotation has increased decidedly in yield 
when either manure or fertilizers have been used. 

Plowing for Com. — Plowing for corn may be done either in the fall, 
winter or spring. In many sections of the country fall plowing gives better 
results than spring plowing. The difference, however, is not sufficient to 
justify the advice that fall plowdng should be universal. Every acre that 
is plowed in the fall or winter facilitates getting crops in the ground at 
the proper season in the spring. Deep plowing for corn deposits the 
trash and manure to a greater depth and induces the roots to go deeper 
into the soil, thus coming into contact with more plant food and soil 
moisture from which to draw nourishment. Deep plowing enables the 
soil to absorb a larger proportion of the rainfall, thus increasing its capacity 
for water. The further preparation of the seed-bed by disking and har- 
rowing should leave it in a loose, friable condition to a considerable depth. 
Such a seed-bed is in marked contrast to the compact and finely pulver- 
ized one that is essential to wheat. 

Manures and Fertilizers for Corn. — The amount and character of 
fertilizer for corn varies greatly in different localities, depending on the 
character of soil, length of time it has been in cultivation, and the rota- 
tion of crops. No definite formula is applicable to any very large terri- 
tory. As a rule, no crop makes better use of barnyard manure than corn. 
Six to ten tons of stable manure to an acre of grass sod is generally suf- 
ficient. In growing corn, all of the nitrogen needed should be secured 
from the manure and leguminous crops that enter into the rotation. On 
soils not in a high state of fertility, the manure may be supplemented by 
about 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate. In portions of Indiana, 
Illinois and Iowa, rock phosphate may be advantageously substituted for 
acid phosphate. On sandy soils and on swampy soils some potash may be 
advantageously used. 

In the absence of barnyard manure good corn crops may be secured 
by the liberal use of a complete fertilizer in which phosphoric acid is the 
dominant ingredient. The amount of such fertilizer and its exact com- 
position will depend on the character and condition of the soil in question. 
The average composition of such a fertilizer would be from 2 to 3 per 
cent of nitrogen, 7 to 10 per cent of phosphoric acid and 3 to 6 per cent 
of potash. The amount to use will range from 100 to 500 pounds per 
acre, depending on location. The character of fertilizer and the amount 
required can best be ascertained by actual test. In general, applications 
of less than 200 pounds may be applied through the fertilizer attachment 
to the corn planter. Where large amounts are used, it is best to distribute 
it throughout the soil before planting the corn. 

Experiments that have been in progress for twenty years at the Ohio 
Experiment Station emphasize the importance of phosphorus in corn 



CORN 



45 




Time of Planting, April 29th.* 

production. A series of plats which received nothing save 320 pounds of 
acid phosphate per acre during each five-year rotation showed an increase 
in the yield of the several crops valued at $16.52 per acre. The acid 
phosphate cost $2.24, thus leaving a net gain of $14.28. 

The addition of phosphorus to manure also increased the yield very 
materially. 

Time and Method of Planting. — The time of planting corn varies 
with the location and character of season. It is never advisable to plant 
until the soil is sufficiently warm to cause a prompt germination of the 




Time of Planting, Mat 7th.* 



1 Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments." 



46 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 




Time op Planting, May 16th.^ 

seed. The best of seed will often rot in a cold, wet seed-bed. In the 
United States the corn planting season from the Gulf northward ranges 
from the 15th of February until June 1st, a period of three and one-half 
months. In the heart of the typical corn belt corn is generally planted 
between the 1st and 10th of May, while in the northernmost limit of suc- 
cessful corn production, the planting season ranges from the 15th to 31st 
of May. In any locality the best time to plant will not be far from the 
time when the leaves of the oak trees are the size of a squirrel's ear. If 
seasonal conditions retard the work and necessitate j^lanting two weeks 




Time of Planting, May 26th.* 



1 Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments. 



CORN 



47 



later than the best time, it will be wise throughout most of the typical 
corn belt, and especially in the northernmost districts, to resort to 
varieties of corn of earlier maturity than those generally grown in the 
locality. In the Southern states the season is so long that there is a 
much wider range in the planting period. A uniform stand of vigorous 
plants is most easily secured by deferring planting until the soil is in the 
proper moisture and temperature condition. 

Several of the state experiment stations have conducted tests extend- 
ing over a number of years relative to the best time to plant corn. As 
an average of six years' work at the Ohio Experiment Station there was 
little difference in yield in planting any time between the 1st and 20th 
of May. For dates much later than the 20th there was a marked reduc- 
tion in yield. Planting in the last week in April was nearly as good as 




Time of Planting, June 6th. ^ 



planting between the 1st and 20th of May, It is better to plant too early 
than to plant too late. Failure in case of early planting may be corrected 
by replanting, but there is no remedial measure for a planting that is 
made too late. 

Rate of Planting. — A full stand of corn is essential. The number of 
plants per acre will vary with the fertility of the soil, the kind of corn 
and the purpose for which it is grown. Fertile soils will support more 
plants per acre than poor ones. Small varieties may be more thickly 
planted than large ones, and an abundant moisture supply in the soil 
will mature more plants than when dry. When planted for grain, 10,000 
to 12,000 plants per acre are probably best throughout the greater portion 
of the corn belt. In the South, on thinner soils, fewer plants are often 
desirable. If grown largely for fodder or ensilage, corn may be planted 
one-quarter thicker than when grown for grain. 

I Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station , Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments." 



48 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Numerous experiments indicate that there is Httle difference within 
a reasonable range whether corn is planted in hills or drills. When 
planted in checks three kernels per hill, 3 feet 8 inches apart, an acre will 
contain 9720 plants. When planted in drills with the rows 3 feet 8 inches 
apart and one plant every 14 inches in the rows, an acre will contain 10,180 
plants. Drilling is somewhat easier and safer on small, irregular fields 
and on land that is of uneven topography, and is preferable on most lands 
that are reasonably free of weeds. On badly weed-infested land checking 
the corn is recommended, because of the better facilities offered for culti- 
vation and weed extermination. 

On the better lands in the corn belt there has been a tendency in 
recent years to lessen the distance between hills, and in many districts 
40 inches is now the common planting distance. 

At the Ohio Experiment Station the average annual yield per acre 
for a period of ten years when corn was planted at the rate of 1, 2, 3, 4 
and 5 kernels per hill, with hills 42 inches apart, the largest yield was 
secured from 4 kernels. The yields were as follows: 1 kernel, 31.7 bushels; 
2 kernels, 50.8 bushels; 3 kernels, 60.8 bushels; 4 kernels, 64.9 bushels, 
and 5 kernels, 63 bushels per acre. The yield of stover was largest in 
case of 5 kernels per hill. The reduced size of ears and the increased 
labor in husking are such as to indicate 3 kernels per hill as the best rate 
of planting when grown for grain. 

In regions of abundant rainfall corn is planted on the level, but in 
regions of low rainfall it is frequently planted in furrows by what is 
known as listing. This encourages a deeper rooting of the plants, which 
protects them from severe droughts. 

Depth of Planting.— The depth at which to plant corn will vary 
with the character and condition of the soil and the nature of the season. 
In loose, loamy soils the depth may safely be 3 inches, and in the absence 
of sufficient moisture near the surface 4 inches in depth may be justified. 
On wet, heavy soils 1| inches to 2 inches will be better than to plant 
deeper. No matter at what depth corn is planted, the permanent roots 
start at a point about one inch beneath the surface of the soil. The depth 
of rooting is not influenced by the depth of planting, unless the depth is 
less than one inch. 

Preparation of Seed for Planting. — Before shelling corn for planting 
it is important to remove all irregular kernels from the butts and tips of 
ears. Such kernels will not pass through the corn-planter with uniformity. 
Before being shelled the ears should be assorted into two or three lots, 
according to the size of kernels, and the shelled corn from each lot kept 
separate so that the planter plates may be adjusted to each size. The 
same results may be secured by the use of a seed-corn grader, of which 
there are several kinds on the market. 

The planter should be carefully adjusted to each lot of seed. A 
poorly adjusted machine may offset the advantages derived from the 



CORN 



49 



THE LAST CULTIVATION 
SHOULD BE SHALLOW 



DEEP CULTIVATION 
EARLY IN THE SEASON 
SAVES THE MOISTURE 



SHALLOW CULTIVATION 
LATE IN THE SEASON 
SAVES THE CORN ROOTS 



carefully selected and graded seed. An actual count of the number of 
missing hills or plants on an acre would prove to the grower his loss 
through imperfect planting. Extensive investigations over large areas 
have shown that in certain years farmers secured not more than three- 
quarters of the full stand. If 75 per cent of a full stand produces 40 
bushels to the acre, what will 95 per cent of a full stand produce? 

Cultivation of Com. — It is a trite saying that the cultivation of corn 
should begin before it is planted. This means that the final preparation 
of the seed-bed should take place just before planting, in order that all 
weeds that have just 
begun to grow will be 
destroyed. In the ab- 
sence of such prepara- 
tion weeds that have 
started will make so 
much growth before 
the corn comes up that 
it will make the first 
cultivation difficult. 
Small corn may be 
harrowed with a slant- 
toothed smoothing 
harrow without inj ury. 
A thorough harrowing 
at such a time will 
destroy many weeds 
that are beginning to 
grow, and is equally 
as effective as one good 
cultivation, and much 
more quickly done. 

The chief objects 
of cultivation are : (1) 
to destroy weeds, (2) 

conserve moisture, (3) aerate the soil, and (4) increase the absorption of 
rainfall by keeping the surface loose. Under most conditions level and shal- 
low cultivation is superior to deep cultivation and the ridging of the soil. 
Deep cultivation cuts many of the corn roots, thus reducing the ability 
of the plants to secure both plant food and moisture. In general, the 
first cultivation may be fairly deep, thus inducing a deeper rooting of 
the corn plants, after which shallower cultivation should take place which 
will interfere but little with the roots. One hundred and sixteen tests 
at thirteen experiment stations relative to the depth of cultivation for 








The Right and Wrong Way op Cultivating Corn.^ 



' Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Agricultural Extension Department, 
pamphlet "Corn is King." 



From 



50 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



corn show a difference of more than 15 per cent in yield in favor of shallow 
cultivation. Sixty-one tests of deep cultivation gave an average yield of 
64.9 bushels per acre, while 55 tests of shallow cultivation gave an aver- 
age yield of 74.7 bushels, a difference of nearly 10 bushels per acre. One 
to two inches is considered shallow cultivation and four to five inches 
deep cultivation. 

The frequency of cultivation will depend chiefly on the surface con- 
dition of the soil and the presence of weeds. In the absence of weeds 
and with the surface soil in a loose condition, little is to be gained by 
cultivation. 

Methods of Harvesting. — Throughout the typical corn belt a large 
proportion of the corn is harvested from the standing stalks in the field, 
and the stalks are pastured or allowed to go to waste. This method 
fails to fully utilize the by-products of corn production, and is wasteful in 




Several Forms of Husking Pegs.^ 



the extreme. In the eastern part of the United States the whole plant 
is generally harvested and utilized. When corn is grown for feeding 
dairy cows or steers the fullest utilization of the entire product is attained 
by storing in the silo. For this purpose it should be cut when the kernels 
have begun to glaze and the husks and lower leaves are turning broAvn. 
When not to be used for silage, corn should be put in shocks at a some- 
what more advanced stage of maturity. Three to four hundred stalks 
make a shock sufficiently large to stand well and cure properly. The corn 
should be husked in three to six weeks after shocking, the ears stored in 
a well-ventilated crib, and the stover reshocked. Care should be exercised 
to so stand and slant the stover that the shocks will stand. They should 
be securely tied about two feet from the tops with strong binder twine. 
It is a waste of good material to allow the shocks to stand in the field 
until March or April. 

» From Farmers' Bulletin 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



CORN 



51 



It is wise to feed stover during the winter period. Its feeding value 
may be increased by shredding. This encourages livestock to consume 
a larger proportion of the stalks. Fifty per cent of the feeding value of 
the corn stover lies in the portion of the stalk below the ear. When this 
is neither cut nor shredded very little of it is eaten by livestock. Shred- 
ding or cutting better fits the refuse for bedding purposes and facilitates 
the handling of the manure in which the refuse is finally deposited. 

In storing cut or shredded fodder one should be certain that it does 
not contain too much moisture. It should be reasonably dry when stored 
in large bulk in order to prevent heating and spoiling. It is well, there- 
fore, to shred when weather conditions are fairly dry, and not until the 
corn stover has become thoroughly cured. 



Shrinkage of Corn in Crib by Months. Average 8 Years, 
Iowa Experiment Station. 



Month. 



November 
December . 
January . . 
February . 
March . . . . 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August . . . . 
September 
October . . . 



Total Shrinkage 
to Date, 
per cent. 



5.2 

6.9 

7.5 

7.8 

9.7 

12.8 

14.7 

16.3 

17.3 

17.8 

18.2 

18.2 



Average for 

the Month, 

per cent. 



5.2 

1.7 

.6 

.3 

1.9 

3.1 

1.9 

1.6 

1.0 

.5 

.4 

.0 



The cheapest method of harvesting corn is to pasture with hogs. 
This is known as hogging down corn. The results of a four years' test 
at the Missouri Experiment Station showed that hogging down corn gave 
a return of 324.5 pounds of pork per acre, which, at 6 cents per pound, was 
valued at $19.48. The average number of hogs per acre was 14, and the 
number of days kept in the field was 35. This was on poor land and with 
corn yielding 25 to 30 bushels per acre. 

Storing Com. — The grain of corn is best stored for a time on the ear 
in a well-ventilated crib or building. Corn cribs of slatted sides with 
openings just small enough to prevent ears passing through are almost 
universally used for this purpose. They should be covered with roofs 
projecting some distance beyond the sides, and turn water without leaking. 
Cribs should be on elevated foundations, preferably of masonry or con- 
crete. The concrete floors are the best. All precaution must be taken to 
prevent serious loss by rats and mice. Corn should not be put in the 



52 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



crib until reasonably well cured. If very wet when cribbed it is likely 
to mould and decay. Ear corn at husking time will contain 15 to 40 per 
cent of moisture, depending on conditions. After standing for six months 
or more in the crib, the moisture, under normal conditions, will range 
from 10 to 12 per cent. After this time shrinkage from loss of moisture 
will be slight. 

Shrinkage of Corn. — A knowledge of the average shrinkage of corn 
is important in connection with future prices, and should be taken into 
consideration by the farmer in connection with the holding of corn for a 
future market. The table on preceding page shows the average shrink- 
age of corn at the Iowa Experiment Station as determined for eight 
successive years. 

Market Grades of Com. — According to the act of Congress of 
June 30, 1906, and March 4, 1913, the Secretary of Agriculture has 
fixed the following definite grades of grain, which went into effect on 
July 1, 1914: 

Standard Grades or Corn and Specifications for Same. 



Grade and 

Classification: 

White, Yellow 

and Mixed Corn. 


Moisture. 


Maximum 
Percentage 

of 

Damaged 

Corn. 


Maximum Percentage 
of Foreign Material, 
Including Dirt, Cob, 
Other Grains, Finely 
Broken Corn, etc. 


Maximum Percentage 
of "Cracked" Corn, 
not Including Finely 
Broken Corn. (.See 
General Rule 9.) 


No. 1 

No. 2 


14.0 
1.5.5 
17.5 
19.5 
21.5 
23.0 


* 
* 
* 

to^s 

tl. 

13. 


1 
1 

2 
2 
3 
5 


2 

3 


No. 3 


4 


No. 4 


4 


No. 5 


5 


No. 6 


7 







* Exclusive of heat-damaged or mahogany kernels. 

t May include heat-damaged or mahogany kernels not to exceed the percentage indicated. 

"Sample" — See General liule No. 6 for sample grade. 



GENERAL RULES 

1. The corn in grades No. 1 to No. 5, inclusive, must be'sweet. 

2. White corn, all grades, shall be at least 98 per cent white. 

3. Yellow corn, all gi-ades, .shall be at least 95 per cent yellow. 

4. Mixed corn, all grades, shall include corn of various colors not coming within the 

limits for color as provided for under white or yellow corn. 

5. In addition to the various limits indicated, No. 6 corn may be musty, sour, and 

may also mclude corn of inferior quahty, such as immature and badly blistered. 

6. All corn that does not meet the requirements of either of the six numerical grades, 

by reason of an excessive percentage of moisture, damaged kernels, foreign 
matter, or "cracked corn," corn that is hot, heat-damaged, fire-burnt, infested 
with hve weevil, or otherwise of distinctly low quahty, shall be classed as 
sample grade. 

7. In No. 6 and sample grade, reasons for so grading shall be stated on the inspector's 

certificate. 

8. Finely broken corn shall include all broken particles of corn that will pass through 

a perforated metal sieve with round holes ^ of an inch in diameter. 



CORN 



53 



9. "Cracked" corn shall include all coarsely broken pieces of kernels that wiU pass 
through a perforated metal sieve with round holes I of an inch in diameter, except 
that the finely broken corn as provided under Rule No. 8 shall not be considered 
as "cracked" corn. 

10. It is understood that the damaged corn, the foreign material, including pieces 

of cob, dirt, finely broken corn, other grains, etc., and the coarsely broken or 
"cracked" corn, as provided for under the various grades shall be such as occur 
naturally in corn when handled under good commercial conditions. 

11. Moisture percentages, as provided for in these grade specifications, shall conform 

to results obtained by the standard method and tester as described in Circular 
No. 72, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 

Composition and Feeding Value of Com. — The following is a com- 
pilation of American analyses of the grain of the three principal types 
of corn and the stalks of dent corn, under three conditions: 

Composition of Corn (Maize). 



Number of analyses 

Water 

Ash. . 

Protein (Nitrogen x 6.25) . 

Crude fiber 

Nitrogen-free extract .... 
Fat 





Grain. 




Silage. 


Fodder. 


All 

Varieties. 


Dent. 


Flint. 


Sweet. 


Fresh. 


Field 
Cured. 


208. 
10.9 

1.5 
10.5 

2.1 
69.6 

5.4 


86. 

10.6 
1.5 

10.3 
2.2 

70.4 
5.0 


68. 
11.3 

1.4 
10.5 

1.7 
70.1 

5.0 


26. 
8.8 
1.9 

11.6 

2.8 

66.8 

8.1 


99. 

79.1 
1.4 
1.7 
6.0 

11.1 
0.8 


35. 

42.2 

2.7 

4.5 

14.3 

34.7 

1.6 



Stover. 



Field 
Cured. 



60. 

40.1 
3.4 
3.8 

19.7 

31.9 
1.1 



The following tabulation gives the farm value and feeding value of 
corn per acre as compared with oats, wheat and hay, when grown in a 
four years' rotation on the limestone soil at the Pennsylvania Experiment 
Station-; 

The Average Annual Yield During 25 Years of 24 Treatments on 36 
Plats on Each of 4 Tiers at the Pennsylvania Station. 



Corn, ears 

Corn, stover 

Oats, grain 

Oats, straw 

Wheat, gi-ain 

Wheat, straw 

Timothy and clover hay 



Average Yield 






Digest- 
ible 
Protein, 
pounds. 


per Acre. 


Price 
per 100 
pounds. 


Farm 

Value 

per Acre. 


Pounds. 


Bushels. 


3,534 


50.5 


$0.75 


$26.51 


160 


2,528 




.125 


3.16 


40 


1,227 


38. i 


1.00 


12.27 


102 


1,772 




.125 


2.22 


19 


1,192 


19.9 


1.33 


15.85 


106 


2,099 


.125 


2.62 


8 


3,609 




.50 


18.05 


135 



Energy 

Value, 

therms 

per Acre. 



3,198 
671 
813 
370 
985 
348 

1,232 



54 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



These figures may be condensed into a table that will bring out the 
comparison in a more striking manner, as shown below: 

Comparison op Digestible Protein, Energy Value and Farm Value per 

Acre of 4 Crops when Grown in Rotation During 25 

Years (1882-1906).* 





Digestible Protein, 
pounds. 


Energy Value, 
therms. 


Farm Value. 


Corn 


206 
121 
114 
135 


3,869 
1,189 
1,333 
1,232 


$29 . 67 


Oats 


14 49 


Wheat 


18.47 


Hay 


18.50 



CORN IMPROVEMENT 

No crop is more easily and rapidly improved by selection and breeding 
than corn. No work on the farm will come so near producing something 
for nothing as time intelligently spent in improving this crop. It is just 
as important to use well-bred seed-corn as it is to breed from an animal 
of good pedigree. The same principles apply in the breeding of both 
plants and animals. Well-bred seed-corn has often produced from five to 
twenty bushels per acre more than seed which has received no special 
attention when grown under identical conditions. A bushel of seed-corn 
will plant six acres; 10 bushels increase on each of six acres equals 60 
bushels; 60 bushels at 60 cents per bushel equals $36 the value, of a 
bushel of good seed. 

Securing Seed. — Seed-corn should be purchased in the ear so the 
buyer can see if it is as represented in regard to type, size and uniformity. 
It should have been grown on soil and under climatic conditions very 
similar to those surrounding the purchaser. Do not send far away for 
seed-corn. Many farmers have done so and have generally been dis- 
appointed. 

Selecting Seed. — Selection should be made in the field where both 
plant and ear can be seen. Seed plants should be under normal conditions 
relative to soil and stand. Good plants should be of moderate height. 
Short nodes or joints are preferable to long ones, for each node bears a 
leaf. The more the leaf surface, the greater the power of the plant to 
manufacture the elements of the air and soil into corn. The leaves are 
the most palatable, digestible and nutritious part of the forage. The 
plants should be free from smut, rust and any other fungous diseases. 

The ears for a medium maturing variety of dent corn should be 
attached to the stalk at a convenient height of about four feet, and by a 
shank of moderate length and thickness. For very early varieties the 
ears may be a little lower and for large late maturing ones, there will be no 
objection to having the ears five feet above the ground. When the shank 

* Refer to Bulletin No. 116, Agricultural Experiment Station, The Pennsylvania State College. 



CORN 



55 



is too long it allows the ear to pull the stalk over, and when too short the 
ear is too erect and may be damaged at the tip by allowing water to enter 
the husks. The husks should be moderate in amount and sufficiently 
long to cover the tip of the ear and protect the kernels from insects, birds 
and damage by rain. 

The size of the ear will vary in different districts, but for a medium 
maturing variety a good seed ear should be 8 to 10 inches long. The 
circumference two-fifths the distance from the butt should equal three- 
fourths but not exceed four-fifths of the length. The form should be 
cyUndrical or but slightly tapering from butt to tip. The tip and butt 
should be well filled with kernels and the rows, 16 to 20 in number, should 




High and Low Ears.* 



be straight and carry out well to the butt and tip with kernels of regular 
and uniform shape. 

The depth of kernels should equal one-half the diameter of the cob. 
Kernels five-eighth inch long, three-eighth inch wide and one-sixth inch 
thick are a good size. The tips should be strong and full, for such 
indicates good vitahty. The embryo or germ should be large and ex- 
tend well up toward the crown. Large embryos produce vigorous plants 
and indicate high fat and protein content and consequently high feeding 
value. 

Care of Seed. — Seed-corn should be well cared for by storing in a 
dry and well-ventilated room and out of reach of rats and mice. Corn, 
thoroughly dried, will stand a very low temperature without injury, but 

1 Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments." 



56 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



if not well dried, a temperature not far below freezing will injure it 
and destroy its vitality or germinating power and make it worthless 
for seed. 

Germination Test. — The importance of securing a perfect stand of 
strong plants in the cornfield cannot be overestimated. Aside from field 
conditions favorable to germination and the proper placing of the corn in 
its seed-bed, there are two dominant factors on which perfection of stand 
depends: first, the vitality of the seed; second, requisite number of 
kernels in each hill or regular and uniform spacing if planted in drills. 

A vitality or germination test of seed-corn should always be made. 
It should be made several weeks before corn is required for planting, 
so that there may be time to secure a new supply in case the seed 

has been injured. There are several 
simj^le methods of making such tests, 
but in all cases every ear should be 
tested. 

Germinating Box. — A box about 
18 inches square and 3 inches deep, 
two-thirds full of clean sawdust or 
sand, is most convenient for germi- 
nating corn. The material should be 
thoroughly moistened and smoothed 
to a level in the box. Lay the ears of 
corn on the barn floor, tips to tips in 
double rows. Number every tenth 
ear with a small paper tag stuck 
between the rows. Remove from 
various parts around the ear, and from 
butt to tip, five grains from each ear. 
Now cover the sawdust in the box 
with a piece of white cloth marked off into squares 1| inches on a side 
Avith a lead pencil, preferably an indelible pencil, and numbered consecu- 
tively. In the squares, place the five grains from each ear separately, 
exercising care that the grains from each ear are placed in the square 
with the number corresponding. Cover the grains thus placed with 
another cloth of close weave or a fold of the one under the corn, to pre- 
vent the sprouts from coming through, and spread over all a piece of 
burlap or a gunny sack well soaked in water. The requisites for germina- 
tion are air, warmth and moisture. The temperature of the living room or 
kitchen is about right, providing it does not fall below 55 degrees at night. 
If the temperature is favorable germination will have taken place in four 
to six days. Any ear failing to give five kernels vigorously germinated 
should be rejected. A handy man, working systematically, can test five 
or six bushels of corn in a day. It is work that should never be neglected 

1 Courtesy of International Harvester Company, Agricultural Extension Department. 




Good and Poor Types of Kernels. ^ 

The top kernels came from an ear 
with too much space at cob, indicating 
low yield, poor feeding vakie, immatur- 
ity. Compare them with the kernels 
in the bottom row. 



CORN 



57 



and will pay for the labor involved many times over in a better stand and 
resulting larger yields of corn. 

Improvement by Selection and Breeding.^ — The ear row method is 
the most satisfactory way of improving corn along any line. This method 
is based on the principle that like begets like, but fortunately this prin- 
ciple is not rigid. It is the variation in the progeny of any parent plant that 
enables us, through selection, to improve the variety, and it is the tendency 
for like to produce a larger percentage of progeny, differing but slightly 
from the parent that enables us to make progress in plant improvement. 

Corn improvement by selection is easy, because the plant is large 
and its characteristics plainly visible; because the variations are suffi- 
ciently marked and frequent to enable man to select individuals with 




A Good Germination Box Seven Days After Planting.* 

The box is filled with wet sand and marked into checks by means of cord stretched 
across the top at even intervals. 



desirable characteristics, and also because of the large number of plants 
that can be secured from the individual and the consequent rapidity of 
multiplication. 

Corn breeding is somewhat difficult because of the natural cross- 
fertilization and the impracticability of keeping the breed pure, and also 
because close and self-fertilization are difficulties that must be guarded 
against. None but the choicest ears selected for desirable qualities of 
both ear and plant should be used in the breeding plat, and any ears that 
do not show a high standard in the germination test should be rejected. 

The selected ears should next be tested for yield and prepotency. 
The ears should be numbered and a portion of each planted in a separate 
row of a test-plat having uniform fertility. The rows should be sufficiently 
long to contain about 200 plants. This will require about one-fourth of 
the kernels of each ear. The rows should bear the same numbers as ears 



' From Farmers' Bulletin 409, U S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



from which planted. The remaining portion of ears, with numbers 
securely fastened, should be saved for next year's multiplying plat. When 
corn is up, it should be thinned to a uniform stand for all rows. It should 
be frequently observed during growing season for rows that develop 
desirable characters. At harvest time each row should be husked sepa- 
rately and the corn weighed. The remnants of seed ears, from which a 
limited number of the highest yielding rows of best type were planted, 
should be shelled together and planted the following year in a multiplying 
plat which should supply seed for the general crop. From the multiply- 
ing plat should be selected choice ears for another test as above described. 
This method repeated each year makes progress in corn improvement. 

REFERENCES 
"Corn Crops." Montgomery. 
" Book of Corn." Myrick. 
"Manual of Corn Judging."_ Shamel. 
"Study of Corn." Shoesmith. 

Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 205. "Growing Corn in Kansas." 
North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 8. "Home Grown Seed Corn." 
Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 116. "Corn Growing in the East." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 307. "Tests of Corn Varieties on the Great Plains." 
U. S. Dept. of Agi-iculture Bulletin 168. "Grades for Commercial Corn." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

313. "Corn — Harvesting and Storing." 

317. "Increasing Productivene.ss;" "Shrinkage of Corn in Cribs." 

400. "A More Profitable Corn Planting Method." 

415. "Seed Corn." 

414. "Corn Cultivation." 

537. "How to Grow an Acre of Corn." 

546. "How to Manage a Corn Crop in Kentucky and West Virginia." 

553. "Pop Corn for the Home." 

554. "Pop Corn for the Market." 



CHAPTER 4 



Wheat (Winter and Spring) 

By W. H. Darst 

Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania State College 

The crop that furnishes the bread material of a country comes a 
little closer to the Uves of the people than any other. In nearly all coun- 
tries of the world wheat holds the first place as a bread crop, and for that 
reason deserves most careful attention. 

The United States, with its rapidly increasing population, especially 
in the cities, and its constantly increasing demand for breadstuffs, may 
very soon find it necessary to import wheat. Under existing conditions 
the price of wheat must increase rather than decrease, and there will be 
more and more inducement for the farmer to increase his production. 

The world's annual production of wheat for the three pre-war years 
1912-14 was approximately 3,882,255,000 bushels. The six leading 
countries in production and in average acre yield were as follows: 



Average Annual Production, 1912-1914. 


Average Acre Yield, 1904-1913. 


Country. 


Bushels. 


Country. 


Bushels. 


United States 


794,889,000 
686,512,000 
349,273,000 
325,650,000 
226,732,000 
205,718,000 


United Kingdom 


32 8 


Eiuropean Russia 


Germany 


30 7 


British India 


France 


20 1 


France 


Austria-Hungary 


19.1 


Austria-Hungary 


United States 


14.3 


Canada 


European Russia 


10.0 



It is an interesting fact that the two largest producing countries 
have the lowest acre yields. At one time these European countries had 
average yields very similar to our own. By years of systematic applica- 
tion of best known methods of production, the yields of these countries 
have increased enormously. 

The climatic and soil conditions of some European countries are 
more favorable to the production of wheat than those in the United 
States. In European countries, also, the labor proposition is not so serious 
as it is in this country; consequently, they can afford to spend more time 
on their wheat crop. 

Wheat Production in United States. — About one-half the wheat 
crop of the United States is produced in the North Central states west of 

(59) 



60 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

the Mississippi River. This section includes the states of Kansas, Ne- 
braska, North and South Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa. Hard winter 
wheat andjiard spring wheat (including Durham) are grown in this section. 

About one-sixth of the crop is produced in the North Central states 
east of the Mississippi River. The wheat in this section is known as the 
soft or red winter wheat. 

About one-sixth of the wheat crop of the United States is grown in 
the far West. This includes the irrigated districts of the Rockies and the 
Pacific Coast wheat districts. White and red spring, and some winter 
wheat, are grown in this section. 

All other states not in the general districts mentioned produce 
approximately 100,000,000 bushels annually. 

Climatic and Soil Adaptation. — Wheat has a very wide climatic 
adaptation, which makes it a staple crop in many countries of the world. 
Wheat is best adapted, however, to regions having cold winters, especially 
cool weather during the first of the growing season. Cool weather during 
early growth causes wheat to stool more abundantly, which generally 
results in a larger yield. This applies to spring wheat as well as to winter 
wheat. 

Climatic conditions, viz: rainfall, temperature, sunshine and 
humidity, influence the milling quality of wheat to a greater degree than 
does the type or fertihty of the soil. The map, roughly dividing the 
United States into wheat districts, shows that climatic conditions existing 
in any section determine to a large extent the milling quality of the wheat. 

In the hard spring and hard winter wheat districts, the season is 
comparatively hot and dry during the fruiting period, forcing early ripen- 
ing of the wheat. This results in a hard, flinty kernel, high in protein 
and of good milling quality. The fruiting period being shortened, the 
wheat does not have the opportunity to store as large amounts of starch 
in the grain as it would under more favorable climatic conditions. 

Where the fruiting season is longer and more favorable, as in the 
red winter wheat district and along the Pacific Coast, more starch is 
stored in the grain, which results in a starchy, light-colored wheat having 
lower milling quality. 

A proper soil for wheat is important in that it determines the yield 
rather than milling quality. A large portion of the wheat in the United 
States is grown on the so-called "glacial drift" soils. These soils vary 
greatly in texture and structure, humus and ])lant food. The clay or 
clay loam uplands are usually better adapted to wheat than the low- 
lying dark-colored loamy soils. Dark-colored soils, rich in humus, are 
better adapted to corn. Wheat grcv^m on such soil is apt to winter-kill 
and heave badly. The wheat grows tall and rank and may not fill out 
properly. 

Rotations. — In parts of the Great Plains region, wheat is grown 
in continuous culture with fair returns, because the farming operations 



WHEAT 



61 



are so extensive. Rotations, therefore, are not profitable as yet. Even- 
tually these large farms will be made into smaller ones, and it will be neces- 
sary to properly rotate the crops for profitable yields. 

Continuous culture of wheat not only reduces the fertility of the 
soil, but multiplies the insects and fungous diseases injurious to wheat. 
Rotations are greatly modified in different localities by the crop-pro- 
ducing power of the soil and by the crops produced. Wheat is frequently 
grown in a rotation in order to obtain a stand of grass. The value of 




Effect op Time op Preparing Seed Bed. Yield op Bagged Wheat. ^ 

rotations from the economic standpoint has been discussed in a previous 
chapter. 

Preparation of the Seed-Bed. — The method used in preparing a seed- 
bed for wheat is determined by the rotation and kind of wheat grown. 
In winter wheat sections wheat may follow corn, oats, potatoes or tobacco. 
Wheat requires a firm, fine and moist, seed-bed, whether it be sown in the 
fall or spring. When wheat follows corn, potatoes or tobacco, the ground 
should be thoroughly plowed for these crops in the spring of the year, 
and the crop grown should receive thorough and regular cultivation as 
long as possible. After the crop is harvested double disking should put 
the ground in ideal shape for the seeding of wheat. 

When winter wheat follows* oats the stubble should be plowed as 
early as possible. The early breaking of oat stubble gives more time 

' Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 



62 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



for the preparation of the seed-bed, the firming of the soil and the conserv- 
ing of moisture. 

If plowing is done late in the season, each day's work should be 
harrowed as soon as finished. Plowed ground that is allowed to remain 
a few days before working is likely to become very dry and cloddy, A 
well prepared seed-bed insures quick germination, a good root system 
and results in less pulling and winter killing. 

The following table taken from Bulletin No. 185 of the Kansas 
Experiment Station, shows that yield of wheat is greatly influenced by 
both the time and method of preparing the seed-bed: 



Methods of Preparing Land for Wheat. Cropped to Wheat Contintjously. 



Method of Preparation. 



Disked, not plowed 

Plowed Sept. 15, 3 inches deep 

Plowed Sept. 15, 7 inches deep 

Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches deep 

Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches deep. Not worked 

until Sept. 15 

Plowed July 15, 3 inches deep 

Plowed July 15, 7 inches deep 

Double disked July 15. Plowed Sept. 15 

Double disked July 15. Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches 

deep 

Listed July 15, 5 inches deep. Ridges split Aug. 

15 

Listed July 15, 5 inches deep. Worked down 



Average 3 Years, 1911-1913. 



Yield per 

Acre, 
bushels. 



6.63 
13.24 
14.15 
22.19 

20.48 
20.77 
27.11 
19.71 

23.40 

22.90 

22.77 



Cost per 

Acre for 

Preparation. 



$2.07 



83 
33 
00 

33 

85 
35 
93 



4.93 

3.92 
4.05 



Value of Crop, 
Less Cost of 
Preparation. 



$3.64 
8.35 
8.60 

16.34 

13.65 
12.25 
16.87 
12.37 

14.30 

14.73 
14.53 



Early preparation of the seed-bed gave a profitable increase in yields. 
Early disking of the stubble, and plowing later, also gave very good 
returns. The possible objection to early plowing (July 15th to August 
15th) is the lack of labor and teams at this time. In this case the stubble 
may be disked early and plowed later when work is less pressing. Disking 
a stubble before plowing tends: (1) to conserve moisture, (2) to kill weeds, 
(3) to lessen the draft and cost of plowing the land, (4) to pulverize that 
portion of the seed-bed that eventually will be turned under, and (5) 
to aid in destroying the Hessian fly. 

In the semi-arid districts of the United States the lister is often used 
in preparing the seed-bed for wheat. The lister leaves the bottom of the 
furrow in ridges, however, and should not be used year after year in the 
preparation of the soil. 

Fertilizers for Wheat. — A detailed discussion of fertilizers has been 
given in a previous chapter. Two methods of supplying plant food to 



WHEAT 



63 



the wheat crop are: (1) by the appHcation of barnyard manure, and (2) 
by the use of commercial fertihzers. 

Where clover or grass is followed by corn in a rotation, better returns 
are obtained from manure when placed on the sod and plowed under 
for corn. For soils low in plant-food and humus, manure may be applied 
profitably to the wheat crop. Unless the ground is too rolling the manure 









Approximate Date of Seeding Winter Wheat. ^ 

should be applied to the wheat as a top dressing before seeding rather 
than plowed under, or it may be applied after seeding. Soluble plant- 
food from the manure will leach down into the soil and the strawy remains 
will act as a mulch during the winter. 

The needs of the soil upon which the wheat crop is to be grown will 
determine the proportion of different plant-food elements to be used. 
The intelligent use of fertilizers for wheat calls for a knowledge of the 

I Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



64 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

needs of the soil. This may be ascertained partly by knowing the previous 
treatment of the soil and by studying the appearance of the crops now 
growing upon it. More definite information may be secured by the use 
of different fertilizing elements on small plats conducted as a test during 
one or more years for the purpose of ascertaining the needs of the soil. 

Phosphorus is the element most often needed on ordinary wheat 
soils of most northern states, and is the one that usually gives the greatest 
increase in yields. In many localities the yield may be further increased 
by the addition of small to moderate amounts of potash. In many cases, 
some nitrogen will produce still further increase. However, it is poor 
policy to pay 18 cents a pound for nitrogen tliat can be produced more 
cheaply on the farm by the use of various leguminous crops in the rotation. 

Time of Seeding. — The time to seed wheat in a given section will be 
determined largely by previous experience. The latitude, season, soil 
conditions and insect enemies all help determine the proper time for 
seeding. 

The chart on preceding page prepared by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture gives the approximate date of seeding winter wheat, 
where the Hessian fly must be considered as a factor. 

Spring wheat should be sown as early as the ground can be prepared 
properly. Early seeding insures cool weather during the early growth 
and permits the crop to ripen before the severe storms of late summer. 
Wheat is generally seeded with a grain drill, although broadcasting is 
still practiced is some parts of the far West. 

Rate of Seeding. — The rate of seeding varies greatly in different 
wheat districts of the United States. East of the Mississippi River two 
bushels of well-cleaned seed will generally give the best results. Results 
by the Ohio Experiment Station, located near the center of the humid 
region, teach a valuable lesson on this point. 

Thick and Thin Seeding of Wheat. Ten Different Varieties Used. 
Sixteen- Year Average.* 

3 pecks per acre 20 . 26 bushels per acre 

4 " 21.64 

5 " 22.97 

6 " 24.11 

7 " 24.36 

8 " 25.01 

9 " 25.46 " 

10 " 25.43 

In the dry farming area of the West the amount of seed required ranges 
from two to three pecks in the driest sections to six or eight pecks in the 
more humid sections. The rate of seeding for any section should be 
determined by actual tests. 

Wheat should not be covered too deeply. The depth of seeding will 
depend on the type of soil and the preparation of the seed-bed. The 

* Taken from records of the Ohio Experiment Station. 



WHEAT 65 

usual depth of drilling is from two to three inches. To secure ideal con- 
dition for germination the seed should be placed in the drill furrow on 
firm, damp soil, which will supply moisture for rapid germination and the 
development of roots. 

Grain Drills. — For general use a good single-disk drill does very good 
work. On stony, trashy land it does better work than double-disk or shoe 
drills. In the absence of trash and on a well-prepared seed-bed, the shoe 
drill is more readily regulated to a uniform depth of seeding. The press 
drills are preferred for use in light, droughty soils and drier climates. 

Winter Killing. — Winter killing of wheat is a source of great loss 
throughout the winter wheat districts of the United States, Winter 
killing may be due to: (1) alternate freezing and thawing of wet soils, 
which gradually lifts the plants, exposing and breaking the roots; (2) 
weak plants, resulting from late sowing, lack of moisture or freezing in a 
dry, open winter; (3) smothering of the plants under a heavy covering 
of ice and sleet. A heavy growth of early seeded wheat is more apt to 
smother than that sown later. When unfavorable weather conditions 
exist, very little can be done to prevent winter killing. However, pre- 
ventive measures such as the following are advised: (1) Grow a hardy 
variety of wheat; (2) drain wet spots in the wheat field; (3) thoroughly 
prepare the seed-bed ; (4) sow seed early enough to secure strong, vigorous 
plants; (5) roll wheat that is pulled by freezing and thawing. Rolling 
early in the spring firms the soil about the roots and benefits the wheat 
if the pulling has not progressed too far. 

Wheat Districts. — The United States may be divided into five wheat 
districts according to the color and composition of the grain. These dis- 
tricts are not sharply defined, but a brief outline of them should give the 
reader a better idea of the kind of wheat grown, the leading varieties and 
the milling qualities of the wheat in the different parts of the United States. 

District No. 1. — All wheat east of the Mississippi River is known as 
Red Winter, or soft winter wheat. It varies in color from white to red 
and amber. The quality of this wheat varies from medium in the northern 
part to poor in the southern part of the district. The leading varieties 
in the northern portion are Fulcaster, Pool, Dawson's Golden Chaff, 
Gypsy, Harvest King, Fultz, Rudy and Michigan Amber. In the southern 
portion the leading varieties are Fulcaster, Pool, Purple Straw, Bluestone 
and Mediterranean. 

District No. 2. — The hard spring wheat, including Durham, is located 
in the Dakotas, Minnesota and parts of Nebraska, Iowa and Wisconsin. 
The wheat in this district is small and shriveled in kernel, hard and dark 
in color. The milling quality of hard spring wheat is excellent. The 
principal varieties are Bluestem, -Velvet Chaff, Fife and Durham (Kur- 
banka and Arnautha). 

District No. 3. — The hard winter district includes Kansas, Nebraska, 
Oklahoma, Iowa and Missouri. The wheat in this district is red to amber 



6Q 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



in color. The grain is hard and flinty, but larger and plumper than the 
hard spring. The milling quality of the wheat is excellent, although 
the quality of the gluten is not as high as in the hard spring wheat. The 
principal varieties grown are the Turkey and Kharkof. 

District No. 4. — White soft or Pacific Coast wheat, grown mostly 
in California, is soft and starchy, and yellow to red in color. The milling 
quality varies from fair to poor. For bread purposes this wheat must be 
blended with the hard wheats. The wheat in this district is classed as soft 
winter on the market. The leading varieties are White Australian, 
Sonora, Club, King's Early and Early Baart. 








Wheat Districts of the United States. 



District No. 5. — The medium hard spring and winter wheat is grown 
in the extreme Northwest, Washington, Oregon and Idaho. The wheat 
in this section is medium in quality, much of it having a bleached, dull 
appearance. The principal varieties of winter wheat are Forty Fold, 
Red Russian and Jones' Winter Fife. Bluestem is the leading spring 
variety. 

Wheat Improvement. — Every wheat grower should ascertain, by 
test or otherwise, the variety best suited to his conditions. The variety 
tests at the nearest experiment station will generally indicate the best 
varieties for similar conditions. For a community located on soil different 
from that of the nearest experiment station, an ideal plan is to organize 
a community seed association. A variety test of wheat should be con- 



WHEAT 



67 



ducted on some central farm. After the best variety is determined, the 
farmers of that commmiity will find it advantageous if all grow the same 
variety of wheat. The advantages of such a plan will be: (1) larger 
yields for all; (2) better and more imiform quality, resulting in higher 
prices; (3) the production of pure seed, true to name; and (4) the pro- 
viding of a better opportunity to improve the variety. When farmers 
of a community are all interested in one variety of wheat, they will naturally 
be interested in its improvement. 

The so-called ''mass selection" will be found both practical and profit- 




A Profitable Yield of Wheat.^ 



able in improving a variety of wheat. The procedure is as follows: A 
field of good wheat is examined at harvest time and enough of the choicest 
heads are selected to make a bushel or more of seed. This is threshed by 
hand and carefully stored until seeding time. This selected seed should 
be sown in a marked portion of the general wheat field. At harvest time 
choice heads are again hand selected from this special plat. The remain- 
ing wheat is harvested for seed to be multiplied for the general field wheat. 
By continuing this process of selection each year there will be a tendency 
to improve the variety continually, or at least to eliminate all danger of 
the wheat running out. 



' Courtesy of Penn State Farmer, State College, Pa. 



68 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Harvesting. — Wheat is generally harvested as soon as ripe. The 
straw should be yellow in color and the grain in hard dough, before the 
wheat may be safely harvested. In the wheat-growing section along 
the Pacific Coast the wheat is allowed to stand a week or two after it is 
ripe, and is then harvested with a combined harvester and thresher. 

Wheat should be shocked the same day it is cut. Considerable 
starch is transferred from the leaves and stems to the grain after the wheat 
is harvested. Immediate shocking of the grain prevents rapid drying 
and aids this action. 

When not to be threshed from the shock, wheat should be hauled 
in and stacked or stored in the barn as soon as possible (a week or ten 
days). Hot sun bleaches wheat rapidly; rainy weather often damages 
and sometimes destroys the crop in the shock. In the eastern United 
States threshing generally takes place in the barn in the late fall. In the 
corn belt section and Great Plains region most of the wheat is threshed 
out of the shock or in the field by a combine. 

Threshed wheat should be stored in tight, clean granaries. When 
it is to remain in storage for some time the granary should be cleaned 
thoroughly to make sure of the removal of grain moths, weevils and fungous 
diseases. If the granary is constructed so as to keep out vermin and 
insects, there is practically no loss of weight in storage. 

Cost of Producing Wheat. — The fixed charges of growing an acre of 
wheat are about the same, whether the yield is 15 bushels or 30 bushels 
per acre. A rough estimate of the cost of growing wheat in the United 
States is between $10 and $12 per acre. The United States Department 
of Agriculture has secured from many farmers itemized estimates of the 
cost of producing wheat in all of the states. Those for a few of the widely 
separated states are as follows: 



Plowing 

Seed 

Plant ing 

Harvesting 

Threshing 

Rent 

Fertilizer 

Miscellaneous 

Total 

Cost per bushel . . . 
Net profit per acre 
Number of reports 



Pennsyl- 


South 


North 




vania. 


Carolina. 


Dakota. 




$3.80 


$1.46 


$1.95 


$2.01 


1.94 


1.36 


1.31 


1.50 


.60 


.89 


.44 


.35 


1.79 


1.23 


1.03 


1.19 


1.60 


1.33 


1.60 


1.46 


3.50 


3.03 


2.22 


5.33 


2.83 


2 . 66 


.06 


.27 


.62 


.35 


.38 


.43 


$16.68 


$12.31 


$8.99 


$12.54 


.84 


.96 


.62 


.64 


3.42 


3.85 


4.87 


6.41 


131 


40 


177 


256 



Kansas. 



$1.81 

1.22 

.41 

1.49 

1.44 

3.41 

.06 

.45 

$10.29 

.63 

5.66 
309 



The estimated cost in Kansas was based on the reports of 309 farmers 
who, during the year 1909, secured an average yield. of 16.3 bushels per 



WHEAT 69 

acre. This is representative of Districts 2 and 3 that produce one-half of 
the wheat grown in the United States. The average acre yield in the 
United States is 14.8 bushels. It will be seen that there is little profit 
in raising less than 15 bushels to the acre. 

Enemies of Wheat: Weeds, Insects and Fungous Diseases. — Weeds, 
common in wheat fields, are not, as a rule, difficult to eradicate. Weeds 
damage wheat by reducing the yield and by injuring the milling quality 
of the grain. The weeds most objectionable in wheat are garlic, cockle, 
cheat or chess, wild oats and wild mustard. These are usually controlled 
by proper cleaning of the seed wheat, by carefully preparing the seed-bed 
and by a suitable rotation of crojjs. 

Insects. — The Hessian fly and chinch bug are probably the most 
destructive of wheat insects. The methods of control are preventive for 
the most part. The burning over of stubble land any time from harvest 
to the middle of August will destroy many of the Hessian flies and chinch 
})ugs. The planting of trap crops also will aid in reducing Hessian fly 
trouble. A strip of wheat sown early in August will induce the fly to lay 
eggs. This wheat should be carefully plowed down after the first frost, 
so as to destroy the fly. Often an early strip of wheat may be plowed 
down in time for i^roper preparation and reseeding. 

A stinging frost will kill the adult Hessian fly. If the season is not 
too backward it is well to delay seeding of wheat until this time. How- 
ever, wheat should be seeded early enough to become rooted before winter 
sets in. 

A patch of millet sown early in the spring will attract many of the 
chinch bugs, thus keeping them out of the wheat and corn. 

The common insects of the granary are the granary weevil (Colandra 
granaria) and the Angoumois moth (Sitotroga cerealella). Both these 
insects multiply rapidly and should be attended to at once. 

Used granaries should always be cleaned thoroughly before the new 
wheat is stored. Granaries should be repaired when needed so as to make 
the sides and floor as tight as possible. 

Fumigation should be resorted to when insects first appear. Carbon 
bisulphide is a very effective chemical to use in a good tight granary. 
One and one-half pints to one ton of grain, or 1000 cu. ft. of space, is the 
recommended amount to use. The liquid should be poured into shallow 
pans and placed over the wheat. For the best results fumigation should 
be repeated in two weeks' time. Hydrocyanic acid gas is used in elevators 
and mills, but would be very dangerous in the ordinary barn where live- 
stock is housed. 

Fungous Diseases. — Rust and smut are perhaps the most destructive 
among wheat diseases. There is no known remedy for rust other than 
the growing and breeding of rust-resistant varieties of wheat. Stinking 
smut may destroy as much as 10 per cent of the total wheat crop of the 
United States. It does not change the general appearance of the wheat 



70 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

head while in the field, but develops within the kernel as the wheat ripens. 
At threshing time the infected kernels may be broken, exposing a 
black, stinking, greasy mass of smut spores. The handling of smutty 
wheat aids in the infecting of all sound wheat that comes in contact with 
it. The smut spores adhere to the outside of the kernel until it is planted. 
The fungus grows within the wheat plant and finally takes possession of 
the newly formed berry. Stinking smut can be controlled by the formalde- 
hyde treatment. 

Treatment. — One pint of 40 per cent formaldehyde is added to 40 
gallons of water. This is sufficient to treat 40 bushels of wheat. The 
wheat should be spread on a good tight floor and sprinkled with the 
solution. The wheat should then be shoveled over until the grain is well 
moistened, after which it should be shoveled into a pile or ridge and covered 
with canvas for several hours. The wheat should then be spread out on 
the floor to dry. / The kernels will absorb water and become larger. If 
seeding takes place before the wheat is thoroughly dry, one-fifth to one- 
fourth more seed to the acre is sown than when untreated seed is used. 

Loose smut is less injurious to wheat then the hidden or stinking 
smut, but is more difficult to treat and control. It destroys the head in 
the field, leaving the bare rachis as evidence of its presence. The mature 
spores are scattered by the wind. If they gain entrance to the growing 
berry in the head, they germinate and send mycelium into its tissues to 
await the time when the wheat is sown in the ground. The formalin 
treatment, which simply acts on the outside of the berry, is ineffective. 

The hot-water treatment is recommended for the loose smut of wheat. 
This treatment requires careful and painstaking work, and is not practical 
for large quantities of seed. A small quantity of seed should be treated 
and sown in a separate plot to be used for seed purposes the following 
year, thus eliminating the smut. 

Treatment. — The equipment required for the hot-water treatment is 
as follows: 3 large kettles, 1 tub, several wire baskets holding about 1 
peck of gTain, and 1 good thermometer. The seed wheat should be soaked 
several hours in cold water placed in tub. The water in kettle No. 1 is 
heated to 127° F., and in kettle No. 2 to 130° F. This can be done by 
heating water in the extra kettle and regulating to the required tempera- 
ture the water in kettles No. 1 and 2. A wire basket should be filled 
with wheat from the tub of cold water, allowed to drain, and immersed 
in kettle No. 1 for two minutes. It should then be taken out and 
immersed in kettle No. 2 for ten minutes, after which the wheat should be 
spread out to dry. This treatment frequently kills a small percentage 
of the kernels, the amount of which should be determined so as to regulate 
the proper rate of seeding. A germination test is therefore advised before 
seeding. 



WHEAT 71 

REFEKENCES 



"Book of Wheat." Donalinger. 

"Wheat." Ten Eyck. 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
320. "QuaUty in Wheat." 
534. "Durum Wheat." 

596. "Winter Wheat Culture in Eastern States." 
616. "Winter Wheat Varieties for Eastern States." 
678. "Growing Hard Spring Wheat." 
680. "Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat." 



%% 



CHAPTER 5 
OATS, Barley and Rye 

OATS 

As a farm crop in North America, oats rank fifth in value. It has 
a short season of growth, is easily raised by extensive methods and brings 
quick returns. It is, therefore, a popular crop, especially with the tenant 
farmer. The yield and cash value per acre is low compared with the best 
oat-producing countries of Europe, and some question the advisability 
of continuing its cultivation so extensively in this country. 

Oats fit into the general crojj rotation and follow corn better than 
most other crops. In the North Central states it is extensively used as 
a crop in which to seed the clovers and grasses. It makes a desirable 
feed for all classes of livestock except swine, and is highly prized for 
horses. The straw is valuable as roughage and as an absorbent in stables 
and has considerable fertilizing value. 

The average acreage, yield, production and value of oats in the United 
States for ten years ending 1914 is given in the following table: 

Average Annual Acreage, Production and Farm Value and Mean Acre 

Yield of Oats in the Ten States of Largest Production for 

the Ten Years from 1905 to 1914. 





Area, 
acres. 


Mean Yield 
per Acre, 
bushels. 


Production, 
bushels. 


Farm Value, 
December 1. 


Iowa 


4,581,000 
4,160,000 
2,697,000 
2,337,000 
2,373,000 
1,636,000 
1,719,000 
1,737,000 
1,424,000 
1,268,000 


31.9 
31.2 
30.8 
32.5 
25.3 
32.4 
29.0 
27.7 
30.8 
31.5 


146,618,000 
130,096,000 
84,739,000 
73,386,000 
59,384,000 
53,581,000 
49,887,000 
48,233,000 
43,704,000 
39,973,000 


$48 182 000 


Illinois . 


46,920,000 
27,526,000 
29,202,000 
19,938,000 
20,881,000 
18,018,000 
15,233,000 
17,327,000 
18,701,000 


Minnesota 

Wisconsin 


Nebraska 

Ohio 

Indiana . 


North Dakota 


Michigan 

New York 



Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — In the production of oats, favorable 
climate and cultural conditions are more important tlian the character 
and fertility of the soil. They do best in a cool, moist climate. In North 
America oats succeed best in Canada and those states of the Union Ijing 
next to the Canadian border. The acreage of spring oats below 38 degrees 
north latitude is very small. Oats require an abundance of water and 
loam, and clay loam soils are generally best adapted to them. 

(72) 



OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 



73 



Classes and Varieties. — Oats are divided into spring and winter oats. 
By far the larger proportion in North America belongs to the former class. 
Spring oats are divided into two classes, namely, those having open pan- 
icles and those with closed panicles. By far the larger number of varieties 
falls into the first class. Thej^ are further classified by color into white, 
yellow, black, red and shades of black and red. They are also divided 
according to time of maturity into early, medium and late varieties. The 
time for maturity ranges from 90 days to 140 days. In the Central states 
in favorable seasons early oats should ripen in 90 days from time of seeding. 

The accompanying map shows the three oat districts of the United 
States. 




Map of the United States, Showing Approximately the Areas to which 
Certain Types of Oats are Adapted. ^ 

In the unshaded portion rather late maturing, large-grained white oats are 
usually best; in the lightly shaded portion early, small-grained, yellow varieties are 
most important; while in the heavily shaded portion brownish-red or gray varieties, 
which in the warmer sections are sown in the fall, are most certain to succeed. 



In the northern district the medium-maturing and late-maturing 
varieties generally give best results. The leading varieties in this district 
are American Banner, Big 4, Clydesdale, Lincoln, Probstier, Siberian, 
Silver Mine, Swedish Select, Tartarian, Wide Awake and White Russian. 

In the central region the principal varieties are Big 4, Burt, Clydes- 
dale, Kherson, Lincoln, Red Rust Proof, 60-Day, Silver Mine, Siberian 
and Swedish Select. In the southern district the chief varieties are Burt 

^Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' BuUetm 42'i, 



74 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



and Red Rust Proof, together with Winter Turf, which is a strictly- 
winter variety. Burt and Red Rust Proof may be seeded either in the 
winter or spring. 

Seed Oats and Their Preparation for Seeding. — It is important to 

seed only varieties 
that are adapted 
to the conditions 
that prevail, giv- 
ing particular at- 
tention to time of 
maturity as re- 
lated to the pre- 
vaihng climatic 
conditions during 
the oat -growing 
period. Seed oats 
should be thor- 
oughly cleaned by 
the use of a good 
fanning mill be- 
fore seeding. The 
screens of the mill 
and the blast of 
air should be such 
as to remove all 
foreign seed, hulls, 
trash and light 
and small oats. 
Frequently one- 
quarter or one- 
third of the oats 
may be removed 
in this way. Such 
thorough cleaning 
makes for a uni- 
form stand of vig- 
orous plant in the 
field. 

If there is 
any trouble from 
smut, seed should be treated with formaldehyde; one pound of 40 per 
cent formaldehyde to 45 gallons of water. This is sufficient for treating 
about 45 bushels of oats. The solution must be brought in contact 
with every berry in order to be thoroughly effective. The oats may be 

I From Farmers' Bulletin 424, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 




Two Types of Oat Heads. ^ 

Spreading, or panicled, oats (on the left) ; side, or horse- 
manc, oats (on the right). 



OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 75 

spread out in a thin layer on a clean floor and the solution applied with 
a sprinkling can. Several thin layers of oats may be placed one on top 
of another, and each sprinkled in this way, after which the whole pile 
should be thoroughly stirred, shoveled into a compact heap, covered with 
a wet blanket and allowed to remain for twelve hours. The blanket 
should then be removed and the oats spread out and occasionally stirred 
until thoroughly dry. 

Preparation of the Seed-Bed. — A large portion of the oats growTi in 
the corn belt are seeded on corn ground without any preparation. The 
ground is disked and harrowed, or sometimes cultivated once or t\\dce 
after seeding the oats. It is much better to double disk and harrow once 
before seeding. The better preparation in this way will usually more 
than pay for the increased expense. In some localities shallow plowing 
for oats may prove to be the best method of preparing the seed-bed. When 
seeded on corn land the stalks should be broken dowai. This is most 
easily accomplished by dragging a heavy pole or iron rail broadside across 
the field on a frosty morning when the groimd is frozen. A mellow, 
loose surface soil with a firm subsoil is best for oats. This character of 
seed-bed is secured on corn land by the methods above described. 

Fertilizers and Manures for Oats. — Over most of the spring oat 
region oats are grown without the direct application of either manure 
or fertilizers. When soils call for manure or fertilizers it is best to apply 
them to the crop preceding oats. In this way the oats receive only the 
residual effect, but this generally meets the needs of the crop. This avoids 
the danger of too rank a growth of straw that is likely to cause oats to 
lodge. Oats that lodge badly are not only difficult to harvest, but generally 
cause a failure of grass and clover seeded with them and give rise to a 
reduced yield of grain. On soil that is in a low state of fertility, or which 
receives no manure or fertilizer for the preceding crop, rather light 
applications of either manure or a complete fertilizer may be applied for 
oats with profit. Experiments show that phosphorus is the most impor- 
tant ingredient to be applied. Some nitrogen, preferably in an immedi- 
ately available form, is generally advisable. Nitrate of soda at the rate 
of 75 to 100 pounds per acre will generally fully meet the needs for nitrogen. 
The fertility removed by oats is given in Table II, Part III. 
Time, Rate and Manner of Seeding. — The time of seeding will vary 
with the season and locality, but generally should be as early in the 
spring as soil conditions will permit the preparation of the seed-bed. 
Throughout a considerable part of the oat region, oats are seeded during 
April. Those seeded during the first half of this month are found to give 
larger yields than those seeded during the last half. In the southern part 
of the district, seeding in March usually gives good results, and in the 
Southern states seeding may take place much earlier. Oats do best if 
they can make the major portion of their growth during the cool part of 
the season. They are often injured by a short hot spell as they near 



76 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

maturity. Frosts or even hard freezes after they are seeded seldom do 
injury, although prolonged wet weather immediately following seeding 
may cause the seed to rot in the soil and reduce the stand. A few farmers 
in the Northern states are now seeding ordinary spring oats in the late fall 
or early winter, so timing the seeding that the oats will not germinate 
until spring. This method is still in the experimental stage, and farmers 
should try it only on a limited scale and in an experimental way until it is 
demonstrated to be satisfactory. 

The rate of seeding depends on the character and condition of the 
soil, the fertility of the soil, the quality of the seed, the size of the grains 
and the manner of seeding. Fertile soils require less seed than poor 
ones, because the plants tiller more. Abundance of seed should be used 
on weedy land, and seed broadcasted should be used more freely than 
when it is drilled. It will require more seed of the large-grained than of 
the small-grained oats. 

In general, the rate of seeding ranges from 8 to 12 pecks per acre, 
the smaller amount being used when drilled and the larger amount when 
broadcasted. At several state experiment stations drilled oats have 
yielded three to five bushels per acre more than oats broadcasted under 
identical conditions. Where satisfactory results have not been secured 
by drilling oats, it has usually been attributable to covering the seed too 
deeply. Under average conditions oats should be covered from 1 to 1| 
inches in depth, although in very loose soils or in a dry seed-bed, deeper 
covering will be satisfactory. 

Oats as a Nurse Crop. — Oats are frequently used as a nurse crop for 
clovers and grasses. When used in this way early varieties and rather 
thin seeding is advisable. This encourages a good catch and stand of 
the clovers and grasses. 

Harvesting, Shocking and Threshing. — Oats should be harvested 
when the grain is in the hard dough stage. If allowed to become fully 
ripe, the grain shatters badly in the process of harvesting, thus causing 
considerable loss. When cut early the straw will have a higher feeding 
value than when allowed to fully mature. Any shrinkage in grain that may 
take iDlace as a result of cutting early will be more than offset by the in- 
creased value of straw. In regions where the straw is not utilized (and 
there should be no such regions) the harvesting should be carefully timed 
in order to secure the largest possible yield and yet avoid loss of grain. 

Wlien cut rather green or when the straw is damp, or when the oats 
are foul with weeds and grass, the harvester should be set for small 
bundles. When harvested in a thoroughly ripe condition the bundles 
may be placed into shocks immediately. When damp or green it is gen- 
erally best to allow the bundles to lie several hours before shocking. 
When the oats are in a good, dry condition round shocks with a cap sheaf 
are to be preferred. Twelve bundles to each shock, exclusive of the cap 
sheaf, is the best number. The cap sheaf should be broken near the 



OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 



77 



band and the heads placed toward the direction of the prevaiHng wind. 
Where wind storms are very prevalent at this time of the year it is best 
not to use cap sheaves. When oats are green or damp, long shocks, made 
by standing the sheaves in pairs and extending north and south, are to 
be i^referred. It pays to have the grain properly shocked, even though 
it is to be threshed in a short time and directly from the field. 

If the grain is to be stacked, stacks should be w^ell built. Rails or 
old straw should be used for the foundation to prevent damage to the first 
layer of sheaves. Stacks may be either round or long. The butts should 




A Field op Good Oats being Harvested with a Modern Self-Binder. 



always be laid toward the outside of the stack, and the outside layer 
should alwa3^s slope downward so that the stack will turn rain. The 
greatest diameter of the stack at the time of construction should be five 
or six feet above the ground. This form in settling accentuates the slop- 
ing of the outside sheaves in the upper portion of the stack. Whether 
oats are to be threshed from the field or stack will be determined largely 
by the threshing custom of the locality. Where the custom of threshing 
from the field prevails, it will be difficult to get stacked oats threshed 
until field threshing is completed. Stacking entails some additional work, 
but generally improves the quality of the oats. Oats in the shock are 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



often badly damaged and suffer great loss from rains. This is largely- 
obviated by stacking as soon as in proper condition. 

In threshing, the concaves of the machine should be so adjusted 
that all grain will be separated from the straw, but the adjustment should 
be such as not to cause serious hulling of the berries or undue cutting of 
the straw. Oats are easily threshed when in a dry condition. The straw 
at threshing time should be either carefully stacked or run directly into 
a hay-loft or storage-shed, depending on facilities. 

Storing and Marketing. — The threshed grain should be dry when 
put in bins and should be kept dry by adequate protection from rains or 
absorption of moisture from any source. Mustiness lowers the feeding 
value and endangers the health of animals. It also lowers the market 
value of the grain. Where grain weevils and other insects seriously affect 
stored grain, tight bins which can be fumigated are advisable. Under 
favorable conditions oats may be stored for a considerable time with 
very little shrinkage and loss. The highest market price generally pre- 
vails during the early part of the year and just prior to the oat harvest. 

Composition and Feeding Value. — A large portion of the oats grown 
in America are fed to livestock. Limited quantities are used for the 
manufacture of prepared cereals. Oats are high in protein and are well 
adapted for work horses and growing animals. They are especially 
desirable because of the hulls which they contain, and which dilute the 
concentrate to about the right extent for healthy digestion. They are 
generally fed whole, although not infrequently are they chopped and 
mixed with other grains. An average of thirty analyses of oats gives 
13.3 per cent protein, 5.6 per cent fat and 67.1 per cent carbohydrates, as 
compared with 11.8, 6.1 and 78.1 per cent for those respective items in 
corn. 

Value of Oats for Hay and Soiling Purposes. — If cut when the grain 
is in the milk, oats make a palatable and nutritious hay, especially well 
suited for horses. Oats seeded with Canada peas make a good hay for 
milch cows and other cattle. This mixture is also well suited for soiling 
purposes and provides an early soiling crop. By seeding at different 
times the season of available soiling crops from this source may be con- 
siderably prolonged. A common rate of seeding this mixture is 1 bushel 
of peas to Ih bushels of oats. This mixture also makes good pasture for 
stock of all kinds. 

Oat Straw and its Utilization. — Oat straw has a higher feeding value 
and is more palatable than straw from the other grains. It is quite gen- 
erally used for feeding horses during the winter, and as a maintenance 
roughage for cattle and sheep. Its feeding value and palatability are 
best when the grain is harvested fairly early and the straw is secured 
without damage by rains. It pays to store it carefully and utilize it for 
feed as fully as possible. The refuse portion makes a valuable bedding 
and the straw has a fertilizer value of about $3 per ton. 



OATS, BARLEY AND RYE ,79 

Cost of Producing Oats. — The Bureau of Statistics of the United 
States Department of Agriculture secured estimates from about 5000 
farmers in all parts of the country on the cost of producing oats in 1909. 
The estimates show an average cost of $10.91 an acre, or 31 cents a bushel. 
On the same farms for that year the average value of the oat crop was 
$14.08 an acre, or 40 cents a bushel. The average net return from grain 
was estimated at $3.17 an acre, to which was added the value of by- 
product to the amount of $1.42, making an average total profit of $4.59 
per acre. 

Oat Improvement. — The improvement of this crop has received 
much less attention from plant breeders and farmers than has corn and 
wheat. There are, however, many varieties of oats, most of which have 
originated through selection and breeding. It is important for the farmer 
to secure a variety well suited to his local conditions, and to improve that 
variety by thorough cleaning and grading of seed. There are oppor- 
tunities, however, for improvement by selecting exceptional stools of 
oats and threshing these by hand and planting each in a separate row. 
These should be harvested separately and the best ones retained, threshed 
and used for seeding longer rows the following year. In this way new 
strains are frequently secured that are superior to the general crop. 

BARLEY 

The world's production of barley is about 1,500,000,000 bushels, of 
which North America produces one-seventh. Of this the United States 
produces 166,000,000 and Canada 48,000,000 bushels. In the United 
States, California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, North and South Dakota lead 
in barley production. These five states produce 73 per cent of all the 
barley grown in the United States. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Barley is adapted to a wide range of 
climatic conditions, but it does best in the North Temperate Zone. It is 
somewhat more exacting in its soil requirements than either wheat or 
oats. It does best on a well-drained loam that is well supplied with 
organic matter. It is quite resistant on alkali soils, and is, therefore, 
adapted to such soils in the irrigated districts. 

Classes and Varieties. — Barley is divided into two-rowed and six- 
rowed forms, depending on the character of the spike or head. In the 
United States the six-rowed form predominates. Manchuria and Oder- 
brucken are the leading varieties of this type. It is also divided into 
spring and winter, and bearded and beardless types. The bearded spring 
varieties prevail. 

Preparation of Land and Seeding. — Barley demands a well-prepared 
seed-bed, and should be seeded in the spring as soon as all danger of 
freezing is past. Best results are secured by drilling at the rate of six 
to eight pecks per acre. Broadcasting the seed usually gives much 
lower yields than drilling. 



80 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Harvesting and Use. — Barley is harvested in the same manner as 
oats. It should be shocked in round shocks with cap sheaves, and in 
threshing the cap sheaves are usually threshed separately in order to secure 
as large a proportion as possible of unstained grain. Barley that is dis- 
colored by rains commands a much lower price than bright, unstained grain. 

More than half of the barley produced in North America finds its 
way into the market, and much of it is used in the manufacture of malt. 
Malt is largely used in the production of beer and other malt liquors. 
Barley for this purpose should be clean and bright in color, and should 




A Field op Winter Barley Seeded after Corn, Anne ArundeIi County, Md.* 



be free from foreign seeds and broken grains, and possess a high germi- 
nating power. 

Use of By-Products. — Straw from barley is less palatable than that 
of oats or beardless wheat, and is also somewhat less nutritious. It 
makes excellent bedding, although the beards are more or less irritating 
to both man and beast. 

RYE 

Rye is of minor importance both in the United States and Canada. 
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota and New York produce 
64 per cent of that grown in the United States, while Ontario produces 
the most in Canada. 



iProm Farmers' Bulletin 518, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 81 

Adaptation and Culture.- — Rjt will grow on rather poor soil, and is 
most extensively grown in districts in the temperate zone where the 
soils are low in fertihty. It is more hardy than wheat, and this is one of 
the principal reasons for growing it. The time of seeding and cultural 
methods are the same as those for wheat, although there is a somewhat 
wider range in the time of seeding. It may be seeded late in the summer 
and pastured so as to prevent heading during the autumn. It is quite 
extensively used as a cover crop and for green manure. Its hardiness 
and adaptation on poor soils make it especially valuable for these purposes 
in the temperate zone. 

Rye is frequently broadcasted, although it gives better results when 
seeded with a drill. ( A Avell-prepared seed-bed is essential to a good stand 
of plants. Five to six pecks of seed per acre are required. 

Uses of Rye. — Rye is frequently used as a soiling crop and occa- 
sionally cut for hay. When used for hay, it should be cut just before the 
heads are out. If not cut early, the straw hardens and makes a tough, 
unpalatable hay. A large part of the grain of rye in America is used in 
the manufacture of alcohol and alcoholic beverages. The grain is excel- 
lent for feeding stock, but it gives best results when used in small quan- 
tities and combined with other grains. It is best suited for hogs, horses 
and poultry. The grain, being very hard, generally gives best results 
when coarsely ground. 

REFERENCES 

"Small Grains." Carleton. 

"Field Crops." Livingston. 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

395. "Sixty-day and Kherson Oats." 

420. "Oats: Distribution and Uses." 

424. "Oats: Growing the Crop." 

427. "Barley Culture in the Southern States." 

436. "Winter Oats for the South." 

443. "Barley: Growing the Crop." 

518. "Winter Barley." 



CHAPTER 6 

Buckwheat, Rice, Flax, Emmer, Kaffir Corn and Sunflower 

buckwheat 

Buckwheat is a minor crop in most parts of America. It can be 
considered a staple crop only in New York and Pennsylvania. For 
a number of years its acreage has remained about stationary. The 
entire area devoted to it in the United States is about 800,000 acres. 
New York and Pennsylvania produce about 77 per cent of the total 
production. 

It is often spoken of as the **lazy man's crop." It lends itself well to 
the farmer who lacks capital. It brings quick returns and finds a ready 
market at fair prices. It is the only grain for which a farmer can buy 
fertilizer on a ninety-day note and pay for it out of the crop. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Buckwheat does best in a moist, 
cool climate and at high altitudes. High temperatures during the period 
of seed formation, accompanied by hot sunshine followed by showers, is 
generally disastrous to the crop. Buckwheat will mature a crop of grain 
in eight to ten weeks under favorable conditions. 

Buckwheat is adapted to a wide range of soils, but does best on well- 
drained soils that are rather light in texture. It succeecfe on poor soils and is 
most extensively growai in those regions where the soils are of rather low 
fertility. 

Varieties. — The varieties common to the United States are Japanese, 
Silver Hull and Common Grey. The Silver Hull is slightly smaller 
than the Common Grey. The seed is also smaller, plumper and lighter 
in color than the Japanese. If there is no objection to mixing varieties 
it is thought larger yields can be secured by mixing the large and small 
growing varieties, which affords a better distribution of the seed heads in 
the field. 

Preparation of Soil and Seeding. — Early plowing of the land in order 
to permit harrowing at intervals of two weeks and a thorough settling of 
the soil before seeding time, is advised. If early jilowing is not possible, 
greater attention should be given to a thorough fitting of the seed-bed 
immediately following plowing. 

The amount of seed per acre varies from three to five pecks, depending 
on manner of seeding, character of seed and condition of seed-bed. It may 
be seeded either with the grain drill or broadcasted and harrowed in. When 
drilled a smaller amount of seed will prove satisfactory, but the distribution 
of plants secured by broadcasting is preferable to that secured by drilling, 

(82) 



BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 83 

unless the drill hoes are close together. The later buckM^heat is sown so as 
to get ripe before frost, the better the yield will be. It is seldom advisable 
to seed earlier than the last week in June, and in some localities it may be 
seeded as late as the second week in July. 

Fertilizers and Rotations. — Buckwheat seeded on poor land responds 
well to a moderate dressing of low-grade fertilizer. On heavy soils where it 
is desired to grow potatoes, buckwheat is recommended as a good crop 
to precede potatoes. The following rotation is recommended for such soils : 
clover, buckwheat, potatoes, oats or wheat seeded with clover. With 
this arrangement the first crop of clover is harvested early and the land 
immediately plowed and seeded to buckwheat. This gives two crops 
during the season preceding potatoes, and leaves the land in excellent 
condition for potatoes. 

Harvesting and Threshing. — The harvesting of buckwheat should be 
delayed until the aiDproach of cold weather, because the plants continue 
to bloom and produce seed until killed by frost. The self-rake reaper is 
well adapted to cutting buckwheat. The machine used should leave the 
buckwheat in compact gavels with as little shattering as possible. The 
self-binder is sometimes used, being set to deliver small bundles loosely 
bound. However it may be harvested, it should be set upright in the field 
so as to prevent the grain lying on the ground. It is customary to haul the 
grain directly from the field to the threshing machine, as it is likely to mould 
when placed in stacks. 

In threshing by machinery, neither the crop nor the day need be 
especially dry. The spiked concave of the thresher is generally replaced 
with a smooth one or a suitable plank. This avoids serious cracking of the 
grain and unnecessary breaking of the straw. 

Buckwheat weighs 48 pounds to the bushel, and 35 bushels per acre is 
considered a good yield, while 25 bushels is satisfactory. / The average yield 
of buckwheat in the United States is 18 to 19 bushels per acre. 

Uses of Buckwheat. — Buckwheat is used chiefly in the manufacture 
of pancake flour. In some sections, and especially when the market price 
is low, it is used quite extensively for feeding livestock. It is an excellent 
poultry feed. The straw, being coarse and stiff, is of little value except for 
bedding or to make manure. 

In some localities buckwheat is used as a green manuring crop. It 
serves well for this purpose because it grows quickly, may occupy the land 
after an early crop is removed, and leaves the soil in a loose condition. 
The seed being comparatively inexpensive and requiring only a moderate 
amount, makes it inexpensive from the standpoint of seeding. It is fre- 
quently used as a catch crop, being seeded in fields where other crops fail 
from whatever cause. 

Buckwheat is an excellent bee feed. It blossoms for a considerable 
period of time and affords an abundance of nectar which makes honey of 
good quality. 



84 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

RICE 

Rice is unique in its culture, because it depends upon irrigation. It is 
one of the oldest cereals, and is also one of the greatest food crops, being a 
staple article of diet for millions of people in India, China and Japan. The 
world's annual production is approximately 175,000,000,000 pounds of 
cleaned rice, the greater portion of which is grown in India, China and 
Japan. As an article of food in the United States it is of minor importance, 
and yet the production in this country falls short of the consumption b}'" 
about 200,000,000 pounds annually. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Rice is adapted to a moist, warm 
climate, and its production in the United States is confined to the South 
Atlantic and Gulf Coast states. The bulk of the crop is now produced in 
Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas. Prior to 1890 it was produced mostly 
in the Carolinas and Georgia. 

Since the lowland forms which constitute the principal source of the 
crop require irrigation, it demands a level soil with a compact subsoil that 
will prevent rapid downward movement of water. Such soils are found 
along the bottom lands of the rivers and on the level prairies of Texas and 
Louisiana. 

Preparation of Land and Seeding. — The land is usually plowed in the 
spring and disked and harrowed to provide a good seed-bed. The rice is 
seeded at the rate of one or two bushels per acre with a seed drill, usually 
from April 15th to May 15th. Unless water is needed to germinate the 
seed the land is not flooded until the plants are six to eight inches high. If 
the soil is too dry the land may be flooded immediately' after seeding for 
a few days to sprout the seed, after which the water is removed until the 
jjlants are six to eight inches high. 

Weeds are often a serious menace to rice culture. Such weeds may be 
brought on rice fields in the irrigation water or may find their way there in 
the seed rice. Red rice is a serious pest, and seed should not be used in which 
it occurs. The presence of red rice in milled rice lowers its grade and 
reduces its price. Red rice, being stronger, hardier and more persistent 
than white rice, soon gets a foothold in the fields unless precautions are 
taken to prevent it. 

Fertilizers are seldom used in the production of rice, because the prac- 
tice of irrigation brings to the land some fertility in the water. This is 
especially true when the water is not clear. Furthermore, rice lands, being 
either river bottom land or prairie land, are generally very fertile. In the 
course of time, however, if rice is grown continuously, fertilizers will be 
needed. 

Flooding or Irrigation. — Water is let into the rice field to a depth of 
three to six inches, and is maintained at this depth until the crop is nearly 
mature. Water of ^a rather high and uniform temperature is preferred. 
Cold water from mountain streams is undesirable. The water is constantly 
renewed to prevent it from becoming stagnant. This necessitates a slow 



BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 85 



movement of water across the rice field, and for this reason it is not advis- 
able to have the fields too large. Irrigation necessitates the land being 
practically level and surrounded by dikes. 

There should be good facilities for draining, since land must be in 
good condition when prepared for seeding and should be fairly dry at the 
time of harvesting. 

Harvesting and Threshing. — It requires from four to six months to 
mature a crop of rice and the date of harvesting in the United States 
varies from August to October, depending on time of seeding, character of 
season and variety of rice. The crop should be harvested when the grain 
is in the stiff dough stage and the straw somewhat green. The ordinary 
grain binder is used for harvesting the crop, and the methods of shocking, 
stacking and threshing are very similar to those used in wheat production. 

Yields and Value. — Rough rice weighs 45 pounds to the bushel. It 
is generally put into barrels of 162 pounds each, and the yield is spoken of 
in barrels, and ranges from 8 to 30 barrels per acre; 12 barrels is considered 
a good yield. The hulls or chaff constitute 12 to 25 per cent of the weight 
of the rice, depending on variety and condition. In 1910 the total crop in 
the United States was valued at $16,000,000, or about $20 per acre. The 
rice is prepared in mills which remove the husk and cuticle and polish the 
surface of the grain. In this condition it is placed upon the market. 

FLAX 

Flax is grown in Canada and in a few of the Northern states. Nearly 
nine-tenths of the flax of the United States is grown in North and South 
Dakota and in Minnesota. 

Soil and Climate Adaptation. — Flax grows best in a cool climate and 
on soils that are not too heavy. Sandy loams are better adapted to the 
crop than clay loams or heavy clays. It is extensively grown on virgin 
prairie soil, and is well adapted for seeding on the rather tough prairie sod 
when plowed for the first time. The roots of flax develop extensively near 
the surface of the soil. It is often considered an exhaustive crop, but the 
actual removal of plant-food constitutents is less than in most other farm 
crops Its shallow, sparse root system and the small amount of stubble 
usually left in the field probably explain why it is considered exhaustive. 

Preparation of Land and Seeding. — Where gro^^^l on virgin prairie land, 
the sod should be broken about four inches deep and completely inverted 
in order to make a smooth surface for seeding the flax. On newly plowed 
land flax is seeded broadcast at the rate of one-half bushel per acre, and 
covered by harroAving. It is thought better to fall-break sod, and to provide 
a better prepared seed-bed the following spring by thorough disking and 
harrowing. In this process the sod should not be loosened from its place, 
and the roller is frequently used to compact the seed-bed and keep it smooth 
and also level to facilitate the covering of the seed at a uniform depth. 

Where flax is grown on old land it follows corn to good advantage, and 



8() 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



the seed-bed may be prepared by disking and harrowing in a manner 
similar to preparing the land for oats. In recent years a seed drill has 
been used for seeding flax with good results. The seed should be covered 
from one-half inch to an inch deep. 

Thin seeding encourages the branching of the plants and within 
reasonable limits encourages large yields of seed. On land foul with weeds 
it is better, however, to seed somewhat thicker to prevent weed develop- 




A'FiELD OP Flax in Bloom.' 



ment. When flax is grown chiefly for the fiber one and a half to two 
bushels of seed per acre are used. 

Harvesting and Threshing. — Flax may be harvested either with the 
self-rake reaper or self-binder. When harvested with the reaper the gavels 
should be rolled and set upright. The heads become entangled in such a 
way as to hold the rolled gavels together. The straw is frequentlj^ so short 
that it is necessary to cut as close to the ground as possible, and this calls 
for a level seed-bed that will facilitate close cutting with machinery. 
When cut with the binder the bundles should be set in small, loose shocks 
to facilitate drying. The highest quality of seed for market demands 
threshing from the shock as soon as it can be safely done. 

Threshing is done with the ordinary threshing machine and necessi- 

1 Courtesy of Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minn. From "Field Crops," by Wilson and 
Warburton. 



BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 87 

tates having the concaves set fairly close in order to separate all the seed 
from the straw. The seed is small and flat and is but little broken in the 
process of threshing. 

The thresh-ed seed is generally placed in strong, closely woven bags 
and securely tied. The seed, being small, flat and exceedingly smooth, will 
run almost like water, and requires exceedingly tight bins for its storage 
and very tight wagon boxes in case it is to be hauled unbagged. 

Yield and Value of Crop. — The yield of flax seed ranges from 8 to 20 
bushels per acre. Since most of the flax is produced by extensive methods 
and on new land, the average yield for the United States is about 9 bushels. 
The price generally ranges from $1 to $1.50 per bushel. During the last 
few years a scarcity of flax has caused a somewhat higher price. A bushel 
of flax will produce about twenty pounds of crude linseed oil, and the 
oil cake after the removal of the oil is worth from 1 to 13^ cents per 
pound. The average annual production in the United States for ten 
years ending 1911 was about 24,000,000 bushels, valued at approximately 
$28,000,000. 

Utilization. — Flax is grown chiefly for its seed, from which is made 
linseed oil, extensively used in the manufacture of paints. The meal, after 
the extraction of the oil, finds a ready sale as a nitrogenous stock food, and 
is extensively used as a concentrate for dairy cows. 

The straw is utilized in only a limited way. It makes fair roughage 
for stock, although not as valuable as oat straw. In some localities the 
straw is used in the manufacture of tow, which is used in making rough 
cordage and twine. 

In the old world the plant is extensively used for the manufacture of 
fiber. This necessitates pulling the plants by hand and requires special 
facilities for treating the straw and separating the fiber. Labor is too 
expensive in this country to enable American flax to compete with that of 
the old world in this respect. Ground flax seed in small amounts is a 
splendid feed for all kinds of stock. It acts as a tonic andhas a good 
effect upon the digestive system. 

Diseases of Flax. — Flax is so seriously troubled with a disease 
known as flax wilt that it necessitates the use of treated seed selected 
from wilt-resistant plants. The formalin treatment described for wheat 
serves equally well for the treatment of flax seed. Flax seed will 
require only about one-half gallon of the solution to each bushel of seed. 
It should be thoroughly stirred after sprinkling, covered with canvas 
treated with formalin, and allowed to remain two or three hours and 
then stirred and dried. After thoroughly dry it may be placed in bags 
which have been treated with formalin to prevent the presence of wilt 
spores. 

Since this disease ma}^ live in the soil for several years in the absence 
of flax, it is necessary to practice long rotations in which flax will not be 
grown more frequently than once in five to seven years, 

15 



88 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



KAFFIR CORN 

Kaffir corn is a non-saccharine sorghum. The sorghums are generally 
divided into three classes: (1) those cultivated chiefly for grain, of which 
Kaffir, milo and dura are the best types; (2) those cultivated for the manu- 
facture of brooms; and (3) those grown chiefly for the production of syrup. 
Regions of Production. — Kaffir corn, milo and dura are grown chiefly 
between the 98ih meridian and the Rocky Mountains, and south of 

40 degrees north latitude. 
This crop is drought 
resistant and adapted 
especially to the dry 
conditions of the Great 
Plains region. 

Value and Uses. — - 
Kaffir corn is used chiefly 
as a source of stock food. 
The grain is similar in 
composition to ordinary 
corn, and has about the 
same feeding value. In 
composition there is very 
little difference between 
the stover of corn and 
Kaffir corn. Any surplus 
of the grain finds a ready 
market, and is in much 
demand for poultry feed. 
The grain may be fed 
either whole or crushed. 
It is somewhat softer 
than the grain of corn 
and the kernels, being 
smaller, can be used for 
poultry without crush- 
ing. It makes excellent 
feed for horses, cattle 
and swine. 

Varieties. — There 
are many varieties in each of the three classes of non-saccharine sorghums. 
The Kaffir corn proper has erect, compact seed heads and the foliage is 
more leafy than that of milo. The seed heads of the latter are usually 
pendant, the stalks are less leafy and the plant is generally earlier in 
maturity. It is, therefore, adapted to the northern portion of the Kaffir corn 
region, and to those locafities where seed production is most important. 

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 686, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 




He.\ds of Four Varieties of Kaffir.^ 

A — White Kaffir; B — Guinea Kaffir (Guinea corn 
of the West Indies); C—BlackhuU Kaffir; D— Red 
Kaffir. (About one-fifth natural size.) 



BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 



89 



Production and Harvesting. — The preparation of the land, the planting 
and the cultivation of Kaffir corn are similar to those required for corn under 
the same conditions. The seed should be drilled in rows sufficiently far 
apart to facilitate cultivation with two-horse cultivators, usually 3^ feet 
apart. The seed is drilled at such a rate that the plants in the row will 
stand from 4 to 6 inches apart. For small growing varieties plants may be 
closer than in case of the larger varieties. Planting should not take place 
until the soil is quite warm. It is usually best to plant about ten days 
later than the best time for planting field corn. It is advisable to have a 
well-prepared seed-bed free from weeds. The plants as they first appear 
are small and make slow 



growth. 

The crop may be har- 
vested by cutting the whole 
plant and placing in small 
shocks, or the seed heads may 
be removed and stored in nar- 
row, well-ventilated cribs. 
After removing the seed heads 
the stalks may be cut and 
shocked or they may be pas- 
tured as they stand in the 
field. In some localities the 
whole plant is cut and put in 
the silo in the same manner as 
making ensilage of field corn. 
The yield of grain is fully as 
large as that of field corn grain 
under similar conditions, and 
the drought-resistance of the 
crop makes it more certain than corn. Fifty bushels per acre is con- 
sidered a good yield. The seed is separated from the head by means of a 
threshing machine. The weight of threshed grain per bushel is 56 pounds. 




Emmek.^ 
A good substitute for oata and barley. 



EMMER 

Emmer, also known as spelt, is closely related to wheat, but is distin- 
guished from it by the grain, which remains enclosed in the glumes when 
threshed. There are both spring and winter varieties. The spring varie- 
ties are most extensively grown in the northern portion of the Great Plains 
region. The crop is characterized by its ability to make a satisfactory 
growth on almost any kind of soil. All of the varieties are drought resistant, 
and the winter varieties are fairly hardy. It is not attacked by rusts and 
smuts to the same extent as wheat and oats. 



'From Farmers* Bulletin 466, U. S. Dept. of Agricult\ire. 



^0 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

It stands up well in the field and is little damaged by wet weather at 
harvest time. 

The methods used in the seeding of other spring grains will apply to 
emmer. The seed should be drilled at the rate of about two bushels per 
acre. It is important to sow early. The grain will stand a great deal of 
spring frosts. 

Emmer is well adapted to the feeding of stock, and will easily take the 
place of oats, barley or rye. 

A comparative test of emmer as compared with other spring grains 
covering a period of eight years at the North Dakota Experiment Station 
shows comparatively little difference in the yield of grain from the several 
crops. Oats led with 1969 pounds jier acre, while emmer was second with 
1945 pounds to the acre. The lowest yield, 1711 pounds per acre, was from 
wheat. 

While this crop is especially adapted to the semi-arid conditions of the 
Northwest, it is suggested that it might prove a profitable substitute for 
oats in those portions of the Central, Southern and Eastern states where 
oats prove unsatisfactory. 

SUNFLOWERS 

Sunflowers are a native of America, and are widely but not extensively 
grown. The leaves and heads of the plant make good fodder for horses and 
cattle. The seeds are used for bird and poultry food and also for the manu- 
facture of oil. Sunflowers succeed best on rather fertile soil and with warm 
climatic conditions. The requirements are similar to those for corn. The 
seed should be planted in drills sufficiently far apart for cultivation, and 
should be thinned to one plant every 12 to 14 inches in the row. 

When the heads form, it is advisable to remove all but two or three on 
each plant. 

The heads should be harvested before the seed is fully ripe. This 
prevents loss of seed by shattering and damage by birds. The heads 
should be spread out on a barn floor or other suitable place until dry. They 
may then be stored in bulk. Where used on the farm for poultry, there is 
no need for threshing the seed. The cost of growing sunflowers is much the 
same as for corn. The harvesting, how^ever, is much more expensive, 
and until suitable methods for harvesting and threshing and storing are 
devised, the crop is not likely to be extensively grown. 

Yields ranging from 1000 to 2250 pounds of seed per acre are reported. 
The seed weighs 30 pounds per bushel. 



BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC. 91 

REFERENCES 
"Manual of Flax Culture." 
North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 6. "Flax.'' 
North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 7. "Plax for Seed and Oil." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : 

274. " Flax Culture." 

322. "Milo as a Dry Land Grain Crop." 

417. "Rice Culture." 

448. "Better Grain. Sorghum Crops." 

466. "Winter Emmer." 

552. "Kaffir Corn as a Grain Crop." 

669. "Fiber Flax." 

SS8. "The Culture of Rice in California. 



CHAPTER 7 

Meadow and pasture Grasses 

Meadow and pasture grasses constitute an important and desirable 
part of the roughage for most classes of livestock. Livestock is indis- 
pensable as a part of good agriculture. An old Flemish proverb says, 
"No grass, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops." The 
history of agriculture of many countries shows that where the production 
of grasses has been neglected, agriculture has declined. England neglected 
the grass crops and her yield of wheat fell to less than fifteen bushels per 
acre. She then turned her attention to grasses and the yield increased to 
over thirty bushels per acre. Of her 28,000,000 acres of tilled land, over 
one-half are now in permanent pastures. For the past forty-five years 
permanent pastures of England have increased at about one per cent 
annually. This should convince the American farmer that in order to 
grow grain profitably crojDs must be rotated, and in this rotation grass 
should find a prominent place. Some far-sighted farmers in North 
America saw this many years ago, and in the corn belt those who have 
grown grass are today husldng sixty bushels of corn per acre, while those 
who did not must be content with about thirty bushels. 

Importance and Value of Grasses. — According to the last census the 
hay crop of the United States was 61,000,000 tons, valued at $750,000,000. 
This does not include the annual hay and forage crops and various kinds 
of by-products, such as straw and corn stover. This amount of hay will 
sustain the livestock of the United States about one-fourth of the year, 
and must be supplemented by about 200,000,000 tons of other forms of 
feed. Considerable of this comes from the pastures, for which we have 
no definite statistics. The combined value of hay and pasture grasses 
far exceeds that of any other crop excepting corn. 

Regions of Production. — The perennial hay and pasture grasses 
succeed best in the northeastern one-fourth of the United States and in 
southeastern Canada. This grass region extends south to the Potomac 
and Ohio rivers and to the southern border of Missouri and Kansas, 
and is limited on the west by about the 96th meridian. The region is 
characterized by a cool, moist climate and moderate to abundant rainfall. 

Principal Grasses of North America. — There are several hundred 
species of grasses, but of these there are less than one dozen that are of 
economic importance in North America. Those of greatest importance 
in the order mentioned are timothy, blue grass, redtop, Bermuda grass, 
orchard grass, smooth brome grass and Johnson grass. There are a 
number of others that are grown on a very limited scale, among which 

(92) 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 



93 



may be mentioned tall oat grass, meadow fescue, tall fescue, English rye 
grass, Italian rye grass, sheep's fescue, red fescue, Sudan grass and sweet 
vernal grass. 

Valuable Characteristics. — To be valuable under cultivation grasses 
should give satisfactory yields, possess good feeding value, be capable 
of easy reproduction and be reasonably aggressive. To these might be 
added, habit of seeding freely so that seed can be cheaply harvested, 
together with hardiness or ability to withstand adverse climatic conditions. 

Choice of Grasses. — The kind of grass to grow will depend on what 
one wishes to do with it. For pastures a mixture or variety of grasses is 




Map Showing Region op Grass Production in the United States.^ 

desirable for a number of reasons. In the first place, a variety of grasses 
lends variety to the forage for the pastured animals, and induces them 
to partake of more food and consequently make more growth. A variety 
often prolongs the season of pasturage, some grasses making their growth 
in the early and late portions of the growing season when weather con- 
ditions are cool, and others growing more freely in the warmer portion of 
the season. Variety also increases the total yield because of the variation 
in habits of groAvth of both roots and foliage. 

When grown chiefly for hay, the yield, quality and palatability of 
the crop secured are important. The cost of establishing, both in direct 
outlay for seed and in the prei^aration of the seed-bed, should be considered, 



1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y, From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by Piper. 



94 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



as should also the duration of the grasses and the length of time required 
to come to perfection. Consideration should also be given to time of 
matui-ity as related to favorable or unfavorable weather. Abundant 
sunshine and freedom from rains facilitate making hay of good quality. 
Where two or more grasses are grown, those should be selected that will 
mature at approximately the same date. 

Seed and Seeding. — There is no crop in which more seed is wasted 
than the grasses. Of the seed sown, a relatively small percentage develops 
plants, and probably there is no crop in which failure to secure a satis- 
factory stand of plants is more common. This is due to a number of 
factors, among which may be mentioned the poor preparation of the 
seed-bed, the faulty covering of the seed and the adverse conditions that 
frequently follow seeding, thus causing a large percentage of the small 
plants to perish. The poor quahty of the seed used is also a factor and 
one that can be largely avoided by the purchase of only first-class seed. 
As a rule, first-class seeds, although costing more than poor ones, are the 
cheapest. The following table gives the rate of seeding, the cost of seed 
per pound and the calculated cost per acre : 

Cost of Seed per Acre, Using Average Amount.* 



PLint. 



Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Redtop 

Brome grass 

Kentucky bkie grass 

Italian rye gi-ass 

Perennial rye gi-ass. . 

Tall oat grass 

Tall fescue 

Meadow fescue 

Red clover 

Alsike clover 

Alfalfa 

Sweet clover 



Rate of 


Cost of 


Seeding, 


Seed per 


pounds. 


Pound. 


15 


$0.06i 


20 


.15 


10 


.10 


20 


.10 


25 


.14 


30 


.05 


30 


.05 


30 


.14 


20 


.18 


20 


.11 


12 


.17 


8 


.20 


20 


.15 


20 


.20 



Cost of 

Seed per 

Acre. 



$0,975 
3.00 
1.00 
2.00 
3.50 
1.50 
1.50 
4.20 
3.60 
2.20 
2.04 
1.60 
3.00 
4.00 



Since failure to secure a satisfactory stand of grass is so common, 
farmers are advised not only to use every precaution in the preparation 
of seed-bed and time and manner of seeding, but also to use an abundance 
of good seed. As land values increase and the price of product becomes 
higher, the necessity for these precautions becomes greater. The extra 
expense for liberal seeding will pay abundantly in the vast majority of 
cases. The ideal seed-bed is moist and finely pulverized. The slant- 
toothed harrow is the best implement for making the final preparation. 



* The prices piven were New York wholesnle priees in .Ian>iar>-. 1014. as given in "Forage Plants 
and Tlieir Culture." by Piper. Rate of seeding for red. alsike and eweet clover changed. 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 



95 



Harvesting. — The time of harvesting grasses for hay will be deter- 
mined: (1) by the weather conditions that prevail at the period of 
maturity, (2) the injury to the succeeding crop as determined by time of 
cutting, (3) the total yield as determined by stage of maturity, (4) the 
amount of digestible nutrients secured, and (5) the digestibility and 
palatability of the product. These factors will vary somewhat with 
different species of grasses and with the character of animals to which 
they are to be fed. In general, hay cutting should take place from the 
period of bloom until seeds are in the dough stage. The total pounds of 
dry matter will generally increase up to fair maturity. Palatability will 
be lessened and digestibility diminished if harvesting is too long delayed. 
If a large acreage is to be handled and weather conditions are uncertain, 
the harvest period is likely to be prolonged. It is, therefore, well to begin 



-xw • 






<it* 


•.^ ' «*' ^ 


■ •- TiitiiitMni liiyiMMiMff* 


HMfel 








HHHhp(»*v' j'- 'jjisi^' 


.-. A .-r. 






1 


3lfi 


B 


B^bHkCPk^ 




B 



The Side Delivert Rake.^ 



harvesting rather early in order that the harvest may be completed before 
the grass becomes too mature. 

The market demands a product of timothy hay that is fairly mature 
when harvested. Such hay is more easily cured and less likely to contain 
dust and moulds. The large part of timothy that is placed upon the market 
is used for feeding horses, and feeders object to dusty and mouldy hay. 

The quality of hay is determined to a large extent by the manner in 
which it is handled and cured. This in turn depends to no small degree 
upon weather conditions. Warm weather, accompanied by plenty of 
sunshine and a fairly dry atmosphere, is favorable to hay making. If 
the grass is fairly mature it may be cut late in the afternoon or early in 
the morning, and placed in the windrow or shock during the evening. 
Where hay is produced extensively, it is advisable to use up-to-date 

^ Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago. 



96 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



mowing machines, side-delivery hayrakes, tedders and convenient and 
automatic forks for conveying the hay from wagons to mows or stacks. 
With such an equipment the hay is secured with the minimum of labor 
and the least possible handling and consequent loss of the leaves and 
finer portions. 

It is maintained, however, that hay of better quality is obtained by 
curing it in the field in the shock. Cocking hay so that it will not be 
unduly exposed to rain entails additional labor. Canvas covers are 
advised if weather conditions are uncertain. 

Hay placed in the mow or stack before thoroughly dry goes through 
a sweating process. A certain degree of sweating is deemed desirable, 
but should not proceed sufficiently far to develop moulds or cause dis- 
coloration. The amount of sweating is dependent on the moisture in 
the hay. The amount of moisture in hay as it is hauled from the field 
varies greatly, but ordinarily will not exceed more than 25 to 28 per cent; 

20 to 25 per cent of 
moisture is favorable 
to a good quality of 
hay, and is better than 
to have it too dry or 
too moist when stored. 
Numerous determi- 
nations of the shrink- 
age of hay in stack or 
mow show a loss in a 
period of six months 
ranging from as low as 
3 per cent to over 30 
per cent. This loss is 
due chiefly to the loss 
of moisture from the 
hay. Where the sweating is intense and the temperature runs high, 
there will also be some loss of organic matter. 

In stacking hay great care should be exercised in the construction 
of the stacks in order that they shed water. The stacks should be built 
of good form, and the central portion should be more thoroughly compacted 
than the outsides. Where hay is valuable, it pays to cover the stacks 
with good canvas covers or to provide a roof of boards. The stack 
should be protected from the earth by a foundation of rails or by a thick 
layer of straw. 

Hay is marketed both baled and unbaled. It is graded according 
to its quality and freedom from weeds and grasses other than that of the 
name under which sold. Market grades can be secured from grain 
dealers' associations, and are generally given in market quotations. 

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago. 




Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker. ^ 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 97 

TIMOTHY 

Timothy is the most important and the most extensively grown of 
any of the meadow grasses in North America. It is the standard grass 
for hay purposes and finds a ready sale in all of the hay markets. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Timothy is a northern grass and 
seldom does well in North America south of latitude 36 degrees, excepting 
in high elevations. Cool, moist weather during the early part of the 
growing season is favorable to good yields of hay. It is best adapted to 
loam and clay loam soils. It is not adapted to swampy soil conditions, 
neither does it succ'?ed on sandy or gravelly soils. It is not drought 




A Field of Good Grass (Timothy), College Farm, Pa. 
Yield, five tons per acre field-cured hay. 

resistant, and does best on moist, well-drained soils. It calls for a fair 
degTee of soil fertility and does not do well on acid soils. 

Advantages of Timothy. — The importance of timothy hes chiefly in 
its ability to produce good yields of hay that find a ready market at a 
fair price. The plants seldom lodge and are easily cut and cured, and the 
period during which it may be cut is longer than that for most grasses. 
It seeds abundantly, and seed of a high degree of purity and of good 
germination can be secured at a low cost. It fits well into the crop rota- 
tions, and is adapted to seeding with small grains, such as wheat, oats, 
rye and barley, either in the autumn or in the spring. 

Seed and Seeding. — The low price of timothy seed and its appearance 
make it difficult of adulteration. No grass seed on the market so nearly 



08 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



approaches absolute purity as timothy seed; consequently, the standard 
of purity is placed at 99 per cent, and that of germination at 98 per cent. 
Timothy seed contains about 1,200,000 seeds to the pound, and weighs 
42 to 48 pounds per bushel. The legal weight is 45 pounds. Four pounds 
of timothy seed furnish 100 seeds to the square foot on an acre. If 
every seed produced a plant there would be a great many more plants 
than are required to make a satisfactory hay crop. The seeds, however, 
are so small, and the conditions for germination and early growth often 
so unfavorable, that 12 pounds per acre are usually required. Tests at 
several of the experiment stations with different rates of seeding show 
that the largest yield of hay has been secured by using amounts somewhat 
in excess of 15 pounds per acre. 




The Hay Loader in Operation.^ 



Under favorable temperature and moisture conditions the seed 
germinates in five to six days. Although a large percentage of seed three 
or four years old will grow, it is safest to use seed that is not more than 
one year old. New seed is sometimes adulterated with old seed. Old 
seed can generally be detected by its lack of luster, but a germination 
test to determine the quality of the seed is advised. 

The seed is sown broadcast and where seeded with a nurse crop is 
generally applied by means of the grass seed attachment to the grain 
drill. There are two methods of distributing the seed by this attachment. 
In some cases the grass seed distributors are turned in front of the drill 
hoes. This provides for considerable covering of the timothy seed, and 

' Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago. 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 



09 



is applicable only when the soil is of a sandy nature, or in excellent physical 
condition. Otherwise, it is generally best to distribute the seed behind 
the drill hoes, and allow it to become covered by the action of rain. 

The wheelbarrow seeder is also used, and where the seeding by the 
above-mentioned method cannot be entrusted to thoroughly competent 
labor, it is better to use the wheelbarrow seeder. In this way the operator 
has only the seeding of grass to look after and will do a better job than is 
likely to be done when the seeding is combined with the distribution of 
grain and fertilizers all in one operation. 




Rows OF Timothy, Each Propagated by Slips from the Original Seedlings.^ 
Each row represents a distinct tj'pe. Note the variation in size and vigor. 



When winter grains are grown, most of the timothy is seeded with 
them in the fall. When seeded in this way it makes but little growth the 
succeeding year, and no hay crop is secured. The second year a full 
crop of hay is secured. In some localities timothy is seeded alone in the 
fall. This method is applicable in the southern portion of the timothy 
region. It involves more labor, but results in a full crop of hay during 
the folloAving season. 

Wliere spring-sown grains prevail, timothy is more frequently seeded 
with them in the spring. With this method, no crop is secured the first 

1 Farmers' Bulletin, 514, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture. 



100 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

season. In the southern portion of the timothy belt spring seeding with- 
out a nurse crop is practiced to a Hmited extent. Such seeding is success- 
ful only on land that is free from weeds and annual grasses. Under such 
conditions a light cutting of hay is secured during the first year. 

Timothy may be seeded on wheat that has been severely winter 
killed. If seeded early and the wheat is not harvested too early, both 
wheat and timothy may be cut for seed at one and the same operation. 
By using a fanning mill with proper sieves the wheat and timothy seed 
are easily separated after threshing. 

Fertilizers and Manures. — Timothy responds abundantly to hght 
top dressings of manure. The manure should be applied with a manure 
spreader, and best results will be secured when used at the rate of six 
to ten loads per acre. It may be applied any time during the autumn or 
winter. In the absence of manure, a top dressing with a complete fertil- 
izer early in the spring just as the grass begins to start is very beneficial. 
In several of the states 350 pounds per acre containing about seven per 
cent of each of the three constituents have given excellent results. 

Tests at several of the experiment stations relative to the position of 
the roots of timothy in the soil show that 85 to 90 per cent of the roots are 
found in the first six inches of soil. In one case 63 per cent occurred in 
the upper two inches of soil. This is important in connection with the 
top dressing of timothy and shows that such top dressing is very close 
to the great bulk of the active roots of the crop. 

Mixing Timothy with Other Grasses and Clovers. — If the hay 
product is to be fed on the farm, it is advisal)le to seed clover with timothy. 
In this practice the amount of timothy seed is reduced to eight or ten 
pounds per acre, and may be seeded either in the fall or spring, depending 
on local practice. In the northern part of the timothy region the clover 
can be safely seeded only in the spring. - Six to ten pounds of clover seed 
per acre will be required, depending on soil conditions and the kind of 
clover. The first crop of hay will be largely clover, the second chiefly 
timothy. 

Where meadow land is to be used for hay during the first year or 
two and afterwards devoted to pasture, it is well to include redtop, blue 
grass and some other grasses and clovers with it. It is also thought wise 
on very wet lands or on sour soil to include some redtojD with the timothy 
for hay pin-poses. 

Harvesting. — Many experiments relative to the time of harvesting 
show that the best results are secured only when cut between the time 
of full bloom and the soft dough stage of the seed. Since timothy is 
shallow rooted and much of its vitality depends on the thickened bulb- 
like base of the stem, it is desirable not to cut too closely. Close cutting, 
or pasturing closely with stock after cutting, injures the subsequent 
crops by exposure of the bulbs and by injury from tramping. Only when 
the aftermath is abundant should pasturing be allowed. In no case is it 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 



101 



deemed desirable to pasture with sheep, since they are apt to nip off the 
crown of tlie plant and thus destroy it. 

Pasturing. — Timothy is distinctly a grass for hay rather than for 
pasturing. It may be used in pasture mixtures to give early grazing, 
and will give way to the more permanent grasses which are slower in 
becoming established. It is a common practice to cut timothy for hay 
purposes for one or more years and then pasture during the year just 
preceding the devotion of the land to another crop. 



,-i^^S'flll, 10^*' 




Field of Timothy Plants Grown for Selection, Showing Variation in Size 
AND Form of Individual Plants. ^ 

Slips and seeds from choice plants are used for propagating new strains. 

Seed Production. — Timothy generally produces between five and 
twelve bushels of seed per acre. It is most conveniently cut with the 
self-binder, and is threshed with the ordinary threshing machine, using 
special sieves to clean and separate the seed. Loss from shattering will 
be severe if allowed to become over-ripe. If cut promptly the straw has 
considerable feeding value. The principal seed-producing states are 
Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas and Ohio. 

Composition and Feeding Value. — Timothy hay contains about 6 
per cent of protein, 45 per cent of carbohydrates, 2.5 per cent of fat and 29 
per cent of crude fiber. About one-half of this is digestible. 

»Farmer3' Bulletin. 514, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



102 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Improvement of Timothy. — Although timothy has been an important 
crop and large quantities of seed are bought and sold, as yet no varieties 
have been developed. Timothy plants show marked variation in size, 
vigor, character of foliage and resistance to drought. Improvement of 
the crop for special purposes can be made by the selection and propagation 
of desirable plants. Several of the experiment stations have made progress 
along this line and have already developed strains of timothy that have 



, 








;/ ^1 












/•; 




If 




ih ,' 


i ; ■ ^ 








k ■ 


t 




f' • 






.i 


111 


fc ' 








it 




HbIjP^'. 






pj 




mmgi 


& 


i^i^i^M^fflHi 


■■ 



Variations in Timothy. ^ 



outyielded that secured from commercial seed by as much as one ton 
per acre. 

Marketing the Hay. — The bulk of timothy hay is placed upon the 
market in bales of about 100 pounds each. The market calls for bright, 
clean timothy hay, free from weeds and various grasses. When mixed with 
clover, redtop or other grasses, quotations will be somewhat lower than for 
pure timothy. 

BLUE GRASS 

There ara two chief species of blue grass in North America, namely, 
Kentucky blue grass and Canada blue grass. These grasses spread by 

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Plant Breeding," by Bailey. 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 103 

means of seed and also by underground root stocks. They give rise to an 
even and continuous turf, and are especially adapted for pasture purposes. 
They are aggressive grasses and tend to take possession of the land and 
crowd out weeds and other grasses. The Kentucky blue grass is superior 
in both quality and yield. Its chmatic adaptation is essentially the same 
as that for Canada blue grass, and ranges from Virginia northward into 
Canada, and westward to the central part of Kansas and Nebraska. It 
reaches its highest development in the region of limestone soils. Parts of 
Kentucky, Missouri, Virginia and Tennessee are noted for their blue grass 
regions. It also succeeds well on both the timber and prairie soils of Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois and Iowa. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — These two prominent pasture grasses 
are adapted to a cool, moist climate having thirty inches of rainfall and 
upward. They are exceedingly resistant to cold, never freezing out in 
even the most severe winters. These grasses prefer well-drained loams 
or clay loams. They are not adapted to loose, sandy soils. The Kentucky 
blue grass calls for a fair to good degree of fertility, and where these two 
grasses are seeded together on such soil, the Kentucky blue grass will 
soon take full possession. The Canada blue grass has the ability to grow 
on poor soils, although it will produce only small crops and poor pasturage 
under such conditions. On poor soils the Canada blue grass will take pos- 
session finally to the exclusion of Kentucky blue grass. 

Although these two grasses will make hay of fair quality, the yield 
is so low that they are not adapted to hay purposes. 

Importance of Blue Grass. — As pasture grasses these are unexcelled 
for the temperate portions of North America where the rainfall is fairly 
abundant. They are not only valuable as summer pasture, but as winter 
pasture for horses and sheep, have no equal. When desired for winter 
pasture they should not be closely pastured during the summer. Winter 
pasture from these grasses can often be provided by turning the stock into 
the fields from which the spring crops have been harvested and on to meadow 
land during the late summer and autumn. This permits the blue grass to 
make good growth for winter pasture. Even when covered with snow, 
horses and sheep will paw off the snow and pasture on the grass. 

Severe drought during the summer may completely suspend the growth 
of blue grass and cause it to appear dead. No matter how long the period 
of drought, rains will quickly revive the grass and it will resume its normal 
growth and condition. It will stand a great abundance of tramping without 
serious injury. The writer has seen calves retained in hurdle pens during 
wet weather on blue grass until the surface would be thoroughly puddled 
and no grass visible. A few weeks after removing the pens the grass would 
be in as thrifty a condition as ever. 

Methods of Establishing. — Blue grass seed weighs from fourteen to 
twenty-eight pounds per bushel, the legal weight being fourteen pounds. 
The weight is determined chiefly by the presence or absence of the glumes 

16 



104 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

or hulls that enclose the seed proper. Blue grass seed is frequently of low 
vitality, due to faulty methods of harvesting and curing. It is always well 
to test the seed before seeding as a guide to the amount of seed desirable 
to use. Blue grass is very slow in becoming thoroughly established, and 
good pastures can seldom be secured in less than two years from time of 
seeding, and in some cases more time is required. It is generally advisable 
to seed with a mixture of grasses and clovers, some of which will give prompt 
pasture. Timothy, orchard grass, and red and alsike clover are, therefore, 
frequently used. These ultimately give way to the blue grass. Virgin 
grass land and meadow land are frequently converted into blue grass 
pastures by seeding l)lue grass, which gradually spreads and takes posses- 
sion. When used for lawn purposes, the rate of seeding should be three to 
four bushels per acre. As little as eight to ten pounds per acre may be 
used when seeded with other grasses and when plenty of time is allowed 
for becoming well established. Ordinarilj^, twenty to twenty-five pounds 
of blue grass should be used when it is the chief grass for the pasture. 

It is difficult to distinguish between seed of Kentucky blue grass and 
Canada blue grass. The latter is sometimes used to adulterate the former, 
since it generally is less costly. 

Pasture Maintenance. — Blue grass, because of its numerous under- 
ground root stocks, tends to form a sod-bound turf. This condition may be 
obviated by seeding blue grass pastures with red or alsike clover every 
three or four years. This can be done by using a disk drill early in the 
spring. The use cf the disk will also help to overcome sod-l^inding. The 
presence of the clover will enhance the pasture for the time being, and 
especially during the dry period when the blue grass will remain dormant. 
The clover roots tend to loosen up the ground and supply nitrogen to the 
])lue grass. White clover is advantageous when seeded with blue grass. 
It re-seeds itself and becomes permanent so long as soil conditions are 
favorable. Under favorable conditions and with proper treatment, blue 
grass pastures improve with age, at least for several years. There are 
many instances of such pastures having been undisturbed for thirty 
or forty years. 

REDTOP 

Redtop is a native grass of North America, and grows naturally in cold, 
wet soils. It is a perennial provided with long, creeping underground root 
stems, and spreads both by means of these and seeds. It forms a contin- 
uous and fairly even turf, and is, therefore, well adapted for pasture pur- 
poses. It has a wider range of adaptation, both from the soil and climatic 
standpoint, than any other cultivated grass. It is resistant to cold and 
withstands summer heat much better than timothy. It does not show much 
preference for type of soil, but does best on loams and clay loams. It is 
exceedingly tolerant of soil acidity. It is also fairly drought resistant and 
succeeds better than most grasses on poor, sandy soils. 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 105 

Importance of Redtop. — Redtop is the third or fourth most important 
perennial grass in America. It is adapted to both pasture and hay pur- 
poses, although it is not equal to timothy as a hay producer nor to Kentucky 
blue grass for pasture purposes. As a pasture grass it is not so palatable 
as Kentucky blue grass. 

Culture. — Like Kentucky blue grass, redtop is aggressive and fre- 
quently takes full possession of the land. It is seldom seeded alone, usually 
being included in mixtures. The rate of seeding depends on the quality 
of the seed and the nature of the mixture in which seeded. With re-cleaned 
seed, twelve to fifteen pounds per acre are sufficient when seeded alone. 
Much smaller amounts will meet the requirements in mixtures. The time 
and manner of seeding are similar to those for timothy. 

Yields and Uses. — Redtop has been tested at a number of state experi- 
ment stations and yields of hay ranging from 3000 to 5600 pounds per acre 
are reported. In order to be of good quality redtop should be cut early. 
If allowed to become fairly mature it makes hay that is fibrous and unpala- 
table. Numerous analyses show that redtop hay contains more nutrients 
than timothy hay. 

ORCHARD GRASS 

Orchard grass, a native of Europe, is gTown quite generally throughout 
the United States, except in the semi-arid sections and the extreme south. 
It is a rather deep-rooted, coarse grass which grows in tufts or bunches and 
is without creeping root stocks. It does best in a temperate climate, but 
will stand more heat than timothy, and is less resistant to cold. In the 
United States it is cultivated more abundantly southward than northward. 
It begins growth earlier than most grasses, and often produces a second 
cutting of hay. 

Importance. — Orchard grass ranks fouith or fifth in importance among 
the perennial cultivated hay grasses in North America. It is most exten- 
sively grown in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Ken- 
tucky, southern Indiana, Iowa and Oregon. 

Culture. — The seed of orchard grass weighs from fourteen to twenty- 
two pounds per bushel, and when seeded alone requires about thirty-five 
pounds per acre. Germination of the seed is complete in about fourteen 
days. It may be seeded either in the fall or very early spring. When 
seeded in the fall, early seeding is desirable to prevent winter killing. The 
seed, being of an exceedingly chaffy character, does not feed well through 
a seed drill, and is generally sown by hand or with the wheelbarrow or other 
types of seeders. 

Ordinarily, the grass does not form seed the first season. It is long- 
lived, and individual plants are known to live eight years, and will probably 
Uve longer. 

Yields and Uses. — Whether seeded in fall or spring, the first year's 
growth rarely gives a hay crop, but it may be utilized for pasture. When 



lOG SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

used for hay it should be cut as soon as in full bloom. The stems become 
woody if it stands longer. It is usually about three weeks earlier than 
timothy and is advantageous on lands infested with ox-eye daisy, flea-bane 
.and other weeds that do not ripen seed before time of harvesting it. It 
yields about as well as timothy, and yields reported from several experi- 
ment stations range from three-quarters of a ton to two and one-half tons 
per acre, the average being 1.4 tons. 

It is considered valuable as a soil binder and serves to prevent soil 
erosin on land subject to washing. 

It is recommended as a constituent of mixed pastures. It is valuable 
in this respect because of it* early growth and its ability to grow during cool 
weather. It succeeds best under heavy grazing, and is admirably adapted 
for shady pastures and in orchards that are to be grazed. 

Brome grass. — Brome grass is of comparatively recent introduction. 
It is a long-lived perennial, spreading both by seeds and root stocks. It 
forms heavy clumps, frequently twelve inches in diameter, but when seeded 
abundantly these join and form a compact sod. It is quite deep rooted and 
is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, both from the standpoint 
of temperature and rainfall. It is especially important, both as a hay and 
pasture grass, for the Great Plains region and the Pacific Northwest. 

The method of seeding is similar to that for timothy. It is especially 
valued for hay during the first two years after seeding. There is then a 
tendency to become sodbound, after which it serves better for pasture. It 
is both palatable and nutritious, whether used as hay or for pasture. 

Tall Oat Grass. — This grass has a climatic adaptation very similar 
to orchard grass. It is fairly drought resistant and does poorly on wet 
land. It does best on rather loose, deep loams, and succeeds well on calca- 
reous soils; also does well on sandy and gravelly soil, but is not adapted 
to poor land. It is a perennial and is strictly a bunch grass. 

When used for hay it should be cut promptly while in bloom. After 
this period the stems rapidly become woody. It fields well, but is of low 
quality, the hay being somewhat bitter in taste. For this reason it is 
generally best grown in mixtures. 

The Fescues, — There are a number of fescues, among which may be 
mentioned meadow fescue, tall fescue, reed fescue, sheep's fescue and red 
fescue. None of these are of much importance in American agriculture. 
They have about the same range of adaptation as timothy. 

Sheep's fescue is a fine-textured, small-growing species adapted for 
lawn grass mixtures. Sheep eat it quite freely, but cattle avoid it if other 
grasses are available. 

Red fescue makes a dense growth under favorable conditions and may 
attain a height of two feet or more. It makes fair yields of hay, but is not 
equal to many of the better species for this purpose. 

Rye Grasses. — Perennial rye grass is a short-lived, rapid-growing 
perennial, living usually only two years on poor land, but somewhat longer 



MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 



107 



under favorable conditions. It is seldom employed except in lawn 
mixtures. 

Italian rye grass is adapted to moist regions Tvath mild winters. It 
succeeds best on loam and sandy loam soils. It is adapted for hay purposes 
and may be cut several times during the season. 

Sudan Grass. — ^A tall annual grass resembling Johnson grass, but 
spreads only by seeds. It has been recently introduced and seems to be 
best adapted to the semi-arid belt. It has been tried in an experimental 
way in many of the states and has generally made a good growth. 








\.^-:\ 



>\" -r" . ] 









j^W 



,h' \ • .^ 



Sudan Grass, a New Acquisition. ^ 

Bermuda Grass. — Bermuda grass is a perennial with numerous 
branched leafy stems, which, under favorable conditions, attain a height of 
twelve to eighteen inches. Ordinarily, it is not so tall. This grass occurs 
chiefly in the southern part of the United States, but extends as far north as 
Pennsylvania and Kansas. It is especially adapted to the cotton belt, and 
is to the South what blue grass is to the North. While it is more particu- 
larly adapted as a pasture grass, it is also quite extensively used as hay. 
It will grow on all types of soil, but does best on rich, moist bottom lands 
that are well drained. It is also used as a lawn grass. Bermuda grass does 
not seed at all freely and most of the seed is imported. It is most easily 
propagated by cutting the culms into short pieces, scattering them on the 



1 Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company, N. Y. From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by Piper, 



108 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

field to be seeded and covering them with disk, harrow or other suitable 
implements. These fragments of grass take root and spread rapidly by 
means of numerous root stocks or creeping stems. 

Bermuda grass meadows and pastures frequently become sod-bound 
and fall off in yield. This condition may be alleviated by disking or by 
plowing and harrowing. After such treatment the growth will become much 
more vigorous. 

Johnson Grass. — It is a coarse, large-growing species adapted to the 
whole of the cotton belt. It grows well in the summer as far north as 37 
degrees north latitude, but usually will not withstand winters in such lati- 
tude. It spreads both by seeds and rhizomes, and when once established 
it is difficult to eradicate. It is utilized for both hay and pasture. Two 
or three crops per season are frequently harvested. 

Para Grass. — This is a rank-growing tropical species adapted to moist 
loams or clay loams. In the United States it is adapted only to Florida, 
and the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. This grass is easily projiagated by 
cuttings of the long, prostrate runners in much the same way that Bermuda 
grass is propagated. It is of value both for pasture and for feeding in the 
fresh state. It is seldom used for making hay. 

Guinea Grass. — This is a long-lived perennial with short, creeping, 
root stocks. It generally gi'ows in immense tufts, sometimes as much as 
four feet in diameter. The culms are large, erect, tall and numerous. 
It is adapted to tropical conditions, but may be grown in Florida and along 
the Gulf Coast of North America. Both this and the preceding grass may 
be cut several times each year. Under strictly tropical conditions, cuttings 
are frequently made every six or seven weeks. 

REFERENCES 

"A Textbook on Grasses." Hitchcock. 
"Forage Plants and Their Culture." Piper. 
"Forage and Fiber Crops in America." Hunt. 
"Grasses and How to Grow Them." Shaw. 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

361. "Meadow Fescue (Its Culture and Uses)." 

362. "Conditions Affecting Value of Market Hay." 
402. "Canada Blue Grass (Its Culture and Use)." 
502. "Timothy Production on Irrigated Land." 

508. "Market Hay." 

509. "Forage Crops for the Cotton Region." 



CHAPTER 8 

The Clovers 

Clovers are important on account of their high protein content and 
nutritive ratio. They are especially valuable as forage for all classes of 
livestock. Clovers enrich the soil in nitrogen and organic matter, and 
improve its physical condition through the deep penetration of roots. For 
years farmers have paid out large sums in the purchase of nitrogen for the 
soil and protein for livestock. This can be largely avoided by growing an 
abundance of leguminous crops on the farm. 

Characteristics of Clovers. — The true clovers are herbaceous leafy 
plants having three palmately arranged leaves. The larger growing 
species have deep roots on which occur nodules containing certain species 
of bacteria. These bacteria enable the plants to secure nitrogen from the 
air and use it in their development. For this reason legumes are richer in 
protein than other classes of plants. Of the total nitrogen in the plants 
about two-thirds are in the tops and one-third in the roots. 

Uses of Clovers. — As a rule from one-half to two-thirds of the roughage 
in the ration for milk cows and young stock should consist of legumes, 
among which the clovers as hay are most convenient to use and most 
economical. The larger growing clovers are also quite extensively used for 
soiling purposes, and in some cases have been used for ensilage. The 
clovers are also among the most important crops for green manuring and 
as cover crops. 

Inoculation. — Since all of the legumes contain bacteria in the nodules 
on their roots, it is best to inoculate many of the legumes when grown for 
the first time in any locality. In most of the clover region soils are already 
inoculated for the clovers. If inoculation is advisable, it may be effected 
either by soil transferred or by the use of artificial cultures. In this connec- 
tion it should be borne in mind that as a rule each legume has a particular 
species of bacteria. Three to four hundred pounds of soil transferred from 
a well-established field of any species of clover to a new field will effect 
satisfactory inoculation of the latter. The soil should be taken from the 
zone of most abundant root activity, thoroughly distributed on the new 
field and at once mixed with the soil by disking or harrowing. 

Artificial cultures have now been perfected and can be purchased at 
reasonable prices from many manufacturing firms. The culture is generally 
applied directly to the seed just before it is sown. 

Composition and Feeding Value. — The composition of several species 
of clovers in the green state and in forms of preservation will be found in 
Table I, in Part III. Clovers, whether used for ensilage, soiling, hay 

(109) 



no SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

or pasture, all possess high feeding value, and are especially desirable for 
the production of milk, butter and the growth of young animals. They are 
among the most highly nutritious forage j^Iants, and should supplant as 
far as possible the expensive concentrates such as bran, oil meal, cotton- 
seed meal, etc. 

Harvesting Methods. — The purpose for which the product is used 
will determine the method of harvesting. When used for soiling, it is 
advisable to cut clover each day in quantities sufficient to meet the day's 
ration. If used for silage it should be cut when fairly mature, and go 
directly to the silo with but little loss of moisture. 

Wlien clovers are cut for hay, both the quality and quantity of feed 
should be considered. If the acreage to be harvested is large it will be 




A Clover Field in Blossom. i 

advisable to commence early in order to complete the work l)efore the crop 
becomes too mature. The more uncertain the weather, the earlier the 
process should begin. 

The best quality of hay is secured by a comparatively slow process of 
curing. In this process the moisture should leave the plants almost entirely 
through the leaves. Clover cut in the middle of a hot, dry day when the 
ground is dry and the sunshine bright, will dry so rapidly that the leaves soon 
lose their structure, become brittle and cease to give off moisture. Although 
there may still be much moisture in the stems of the clover, the leaves 
will break and be largely lost in the handling of the hay. These leaves are 
high in feeding value. It is wise, therefore, to cut in the evening and to 
place the hay in the windrow before the leaves become sufficiently dry to 
break and shatter. The best quality of hay is secured by placing in shocks 
before thoroughly cured and allowing curing to be completed slowly within 

' Courtesy of Hoard's Dairyman. 



THE CLOVERS m 



the shock. This entails much additional work, and if weather conditions 
are favorable a good quality of hay may be secured without resorting to 
shocking. 

Clover hay may go into the mow or stack with 25 to 30 per cent of 
moisture without injury. Good judgment and prompt and systematic 
work on the part of the haymaker are necessary to secure the best results. 

The hay tedder and side-delivery rake are important adjuncts to 
securing a good quality of clover hay, and may be considered necessities 
where the acreage is sufficiently large to justify their purchase. 

RED CLOVER 

Red clover is a native of western Europe, and has long been cultivated 
in North America. It is now the most important leguminous crop in the 
Northern and North Central states and eastern Canada. While red clover 
is grown to some extent in every state and province of the United States 
and Canada, it is most extensively grown in those states lying north of the 
Ohio River and east of the Missouri River. Kansas and Nebraska, how- 
ever, produce a large acreage. The accompanying map shows the distribu- 
tion of red clover, grown alone and with timothy, by states and provinces 
for the United States and Canada. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Red clover is quite resistant to cold 
and endures winters well in Nova Scotia, Maine and Minnesota. Northern 
grown seed is, therefore, generally preferable for seeding in cold latitudes. 
It does not do well in an extremely warm climate, and in the South succeeds 
only when planted in the fall, and usually survives only one year. A 
moderate to abundant rainfall is desirable. 

It is adapted to quite a wide range of soils, but makes its best growth 
on fertile, well-drained soil well supplied with lime and organic matter and 
reasonably free from weeds. Any soil that will grow corn successfully 
is well adapted to red clover. It does not do well on poorly drained land. 
On such soil alsike clover succeeds better. 

Endurance of Red Clover. — Red clover is generally considered a 
biennial, the plants dying at the end of their second year. Some plants, 
however, will live over for a third year and a few frequently die at the close 
of their first year. The time of seeding and the treatment during the first 
year doubtless influence the life of clover plants. It is a common belief 
that if clover blooms abundantly toward the close of the first year many of 
the plants will fail to continue their growth the following year. For this 
reason clipping or light pasturing is advised. 

Clover on wet soil may be killed in severe winters by repeated freezing 
and thawing. The plants will be so nearly pulled out of the soil that they 
perish in the spring for want of moisture and plant food. If the ground is 
deeply frozen and the surface only thaws and freezes the taproots are 
broken. This difficulty is best overcome by a thorough drainage of the 
soil and by providing a surface mulch. 



112 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Securing Clover Seed. — The intelligent selection of clover seed calls 
for knowledge relative to the characteristics of both good and poor seed. 
Good seed is plump and has a bright luster, and is generally violet to bright 
yellow in color. The proportion of violet to yellow varies considerably 
in different lots of seed. Good seed should be free from noxious weed- 
seeds and adulterants of any kind. The standard of purity should not 
be below 98 per cent and the germination should be about 98 per cent. 
Frequently some of the clover seeds will be so hard that they will not 
germinate promptly. The hardness of the coat prevents absorption of 
moisture. The percentage of hard seeds is largest in new seed. 

Home-grown seed possesses several advantages: (1) it is likely to be 
adapted to local climatic and soil conditions; (2) its use avoids the intro- 




Map Showing the Acreage of Red Clover in the United 
States, 1909, and Canada, 1910. 



duction of obnoxious weeds foreign to the neighborhood. Among the 
most obnoxious weeds are clover dodder, buckhorn, Canada thistle and 
dock. Most weed-seeds may be removed by the use of suitable screens. 
The longevity of clover seed is three years. The deterioration in vitality 
depends largely upon the conditions of storage. Continuous warm, moist 
conditions cause deterioration and make it inadvisable to use seed more 
than two years old. A considerable percentage of the seed as determined 
by numerous tests will retain its vitality for quite a number of years, and 
the hard seeds have been known to germinate after fifteen or twenty years. 

Seed of mammoth clover is so much like that of red clover that it is 
difficult to distinguish between them. Ordinarily, mammoth clover seed 
is a little larger than that of red. 

Preparation of Seed-Bed. — Red clover is usually seeded in the winter 



THE CLOVERS 113 



or spring, in which case no special preparation of the seed-bed is necessary. 
When seeded in this way natural covering results from the freezing and 
thawing of the ground and the beating of rains. If conditions for spring 
seeding with wheat necessitate seeding rather late, it is best to harrow 
the wheat, thus covering the clover seed. 

When seeded with spring grain the preparation for the grain is generally 
sufficient for the clover. It will pay, however, to provide a well-prepared 
seed-bed that will fully meet the needs of clover seed, even though equally 
thorough preparation is not necessary for the spring grain. A fair degree 
of compactness and a thorough covering of the seed are desirable. 

Time, Manner, Rate and Depth of Seeding. — In all regions of moderate 
to severe winters, winter or spring seeding is advisable, except when 
clover may be seeded in midsummer without a nurse crop. Further south, 
fall seeding may be practiced without winter injury to the young clover 
plants. 

While clover seed is generally broadcasted, recent tests show that better 
results can be secured with less seed by using a grass seed drill. Such 
implements are now available and are so constructed as to drill the rows 
at intervals of four inches. Their adjustment permits of a shallow cover- 
ing of the seed. The rate of seeding when clover is grown alone should be 
ten to twelve pounds of good seed per acre if broadcasted and a somewhat 
smaller amount when drilled. When seeded in mixtures the amount may 
be reduced, depending on the character of the grass seed mixture. Clover 
seed should be covered from one-half to two inches in depth. On very 
loose, dry soils it may be covered as much as three inches deep with fairly 
good results. 

Failure to secure a satisfactory stand of clover frequently results 
from various causes. The condition of newly seeded clover fields immedi- 
ately after the nurse crop is harvested should be observed. If there are 
indications of insufficient plants for a satisfactory stand, it is generally 
advisable to re-seed at once. This re-seeding may take place over those 
portions of the field where the stand is poor, or may cover the entire field 
as conditions require. A disk should be used to loosen the soil before 
seeding, and after seeding it should be harrowed. Disking may injure 
some of the clover present, but not seriously. 

Good results are also secured by seeding in August without a nurse 
crop. Such seeding takes place after the wheat or oat harvest and provides 
for a full clover crop the following year. The chief objection to this method 
is the extra labor of preparing the seed-bed and seeding. 

Nurse Crops for Clover. — Where clover grows without difficulty, it is 
common practice to seed with some nurse crop. In sections where winter 
wheat is grown, this crop is a favored nurse crop for clover. Winter wheat 
is seldom seeded before the latter part of September and this does not give 
sufficient time for clover to make enough growth to protect itself during 
the winter. As a result the clovers north of latitude 36 should be seeded in 



114 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

the late winter or early spring in the growing wheat. Of the spring-seeded 
grains, barley and oats are the best nurse crops for clover. These should 
not be seeded very thick, otherwise the clover may be smothered. The 
nurse crop should be cut sufficiently high to leave a stubble that will protect 
the young clover as much as possible. 

Fertilizers for Clover. — As a rule, no fertilizers or manures are applied 
directly for the benefit of the clover. The residual effect of that applied 
to the crop preceding the clover is generally sufficient. This is especially 
true when seeded with winter wheat. On soils of low fertility, especially 
when there is little organic matter present, top dressing with manure pre- 
vious to the time of seeding is very beneficial to the clover. No nitrogen 
is needed when commercial fertilizer is used. Moderate amounts of phos- 
phorus and potash applied broadcast will meet the needs. 

After-Treatment of Clover. — Clover seeded with a grain crop seldom 
requires any special treatment during the first year. Under favorable 
conditions it may make sufficient growth after the harvest of the grain to 
produce a cutting of hay. This is thought by some to be injurious to the 
following year's clover crop. It is, therefore, advised to clip the clover 
before it comes extensively into bloom, and allow the clipping to lie on the 
field. If so abundant as to smother the plants, it may be removed. 
Clipping is also advisable to prevent the ripening of the seeds of obnoxious 
weeds and grasses that are always present to some extent. The clipping 
should be so timed as to prevent the seeding of the largest possible number 
of such plants. If too early, seeds may develop after the clipping, and if 
too late some of the seeds may have already matured. The ordinary 
mowing machine with the bar set rather high is well suited for this purpose. 

Light pasturing may be practiced instead of clipping. Pasturing with 
sheep is best, since sheep are fond of many of the weeds and grasses, and 
will eat the seeds in great abundance. 

Since red clover lives only two years, the first crop during the second 
year is generally cut for hay and the aftermath is either used for a seed crop, 
is pastured or plowed under for the benefit of the soil. If the second crop 
is to be used for seed it is wise to cut the first crop early. This encourages 
a better development of the second crop and increases seed production. 
The first crop should be cut just as it is coming into bloom. If the clover 
is to remain for the third year, seed must be allowed to mature during the 
late summer of the second season, with a view of having the clover re-seed 
itself naturally. This is not a very satisfactory method, however, because 
the seed heads generally fall to the ground and give rise to an uneven distri- 
bution of the seed. This, however, may be obviated by thoroughly 
harrowing the field after the seed heads are mostly on the ground. The 
harrowing breaks up the heads and distributes the seed. It should be so 
timed as to avoid destruction of clover plants when just starting. 

Harvesting Clover. — Red clover, harvested for hay, should be cut 
when one-third of the blossoms have begun to turn brown. At this time 



THE CLOVERS 115 



the plants will contain about all the nutrients they ever will have, and the 
product will cure readjly and make a palatable, digestible hay. After this 
period the lower leaves begin to fall rather rapidly and the clover is apt to 
lodge so that loss takes place. 

When used for soiling purposes, cutting may begin as soon as the first 
blossoms appear, and continue until the crop is fairly mature. When used 
for silage, the plants should be fully as mature as when cut for hay. If 
cut too green it makes a sloppy, sour silage of poor quality. When used 
for silage, clover gives best results when mixed with non-leguminous crops. 
The second cutting of clover can frequently be used to mix with corn in the 
making of silage. 

The least expensive way of harvesting is to pasture. While red clover 
is not especially well adapted to pasture purposes, it makes a good quality 
of pasture, and especially when mixed with grasses. It is especially suited 
to cattle, sheep and swine. Sheep and cattle are sometimes subject to 
bloating when allowed to feed on red clover when it is especially succulent 
or when wet with dew or rain. Such trouble occurs only when the animals 
are unaccustomed to it and when they feed too heavily. 

Clover Seed Production. — Red clover seed may be successfully pro- 
duced in practically all areas adapted to the production of clover hay. It 
differs in this respect from alfalfa. 

Seed production is encouraged by retarding somewhat the vegetative 
growth. Conditions that will produce a medium growth of plant usually 
induce the best setting of seed. Good seed crops are seldom secured from 
a rank growth of clover. Under such conditions the heads are few and are 
not well filled. The probable yield of seed and advisability of saving the 
crop for that purpose can be determined by a careful examination of a 
number of seed heads. If the seed heads are fairly abundant and contain 
an average of twenty-five to thirty seeds er.ch, it indicates a yield of one to 
two bushels per acre, and justifies saving for seed purposes. If the average 
number of seeds is not more than twenty it will generally not pay to cut 
for seed. This determination must be made fairly early in order to cut the 
crop for hay before it becomes too mature in case it will not pay to save 
for seed. 

It is a common behef that seed production calls for a pollination of the 
flowers by insects. The ordinary honey bee cannot reach the nectar of 
the average clover blossom, and is, therefore, not instrumental in the fertili- 
zation of the flowers. Bumble bees, however, are supposed to be the most 
effective agents in this process. There are probably numerous very small 
insects that also produce pollination. However this may be, the second 
crop is the one that gives best results for seed purposes. At that time 
insects are more numerous, weather conditions are drier and the plants 
tend to produce seed more abundantly than earlier in the year. Occasion- 
ally the first crop will produce plenty of seed. The seed crop should be cut 
when the largest number of heads can be secured, If cut too early, the 



116 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



late blossoms will have no seeds or will have poorly developed seeds. If 
cut too late, the early blossoms will have shattered off. 

The old-fashioned self-rake reaper is best adapted to cutting the seed 
crop. It leaves the cut clover in bunches of convenient size, sufficiently 
far from the standing clover for the team and machine to pass for the next 
swath. These bunches of cut clover do not need to be disturbed until they 
are ready to be hauled to the threshing machine. In the absence of the 
self-rake reaper, a mowing machine with a buncher may be substituted. 
If the buncher leaves the clover in the path of the team and machine, a 
man should follow the machine with a barley fork and move the bunches. 
Serious shattering in the cutting process may be avoided by harvesting the 
crop in the evening or early in the morning, or on damp days. 

The clover is generally threshed with a clover huller. This machine 
should contain two cylinders. Concaves must be set rather close in order 

to remove all of the 
clover seed from the 
hulls. The seed being 
valuable, it is advised 
to spread canvas be- 
neath the machine to 
save the clover seed 
Avhich shatters out in 
the threshing process. 
Where threshing is 
done on a barn floor 
canvas will not be 
required. 

The seed should 
be thoroughly cleaned before being placed upon the market or used for 
seed purposes. Nearly all foreign matter and weed seeds can be 
removed by use of a suitable fanning mill. Occasionally there are seeds 
present of about the same size and weight as clover seeds, and these 
will be difficult to remove. Buckhorn seed is difficult to remove in this 
way. It is a very troublesome weed in meadows and the following process 
of removing it from clover seed is recommended. Thoroughly wet the 
clover seed with water at about room temperature, and allow to stand in 
the water for five minutes, or as much as eight minutes if the temperature 
of the water is low. The water is then drained off and the moist seed 
thoroughly mixed with sawdust; about four parts of sawdust to one part 
of seed by measure will be required. Two or three minutes of thorough 
mixing will cause the sawdust to absorb the free surface moisture from the 
seed. The buckhorn seeds become mucilaginous and the sawdust adheres 
to them. The mixture is now run through two screens, preferably in a 
fanning mill. The upper one should be perforated with round holes 

'Courtesy of U. S. Dept. ©f Agriculture. From Farmers' Bulletin 495. 




A Clover Buncher Attached to a Mowing Machine. ^ 



THE CLOVERS 



117 



one-fifteenth of an inch in diameter. The lower should be a No. 22 mesh 
wire screen. The buckhorn seeds with sawdust adhering will pass over the 
surface of the upper screen and be removed. The clover seed will pass 
through the openings and be retained by the lower screen, passing off at 
the edge, where it may be collected. The sawdust should be fine and will 
pass through the lower screen. Through this process the separation is 
made complete. 

Red Clover Troubles. — The principal enemies of red clover are insects, 
fungous diseases and weeds. Much is heard concerning clover sickness, 




Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land.* 



but little is known relative to the nature of the malady. Failure to grow 
continuous crops of clover may be due to any one of several causes. Soil 
acidity is probably the most common cause of clover failm-e. This, as 
previously stated, is overcome by the use of lime. One of the most common 
diseases of clover is anthracnose. In some sections nematodes have also 
been resi^onsible for clover failure. 

Alsike Clover. — Is a perennial plant intermediate between red and 
white clover in size and appearance. It is adapted to ground that is too 
wet for red clover and is also more tolerant of acidity. 

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Crops and Methods for Soil Improve- 
ment," by Agee. 



118 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



As a hay crop it will not yield as much as red clover, although it makes 
hay of finer textures and retains the leaves better. It is hardier than red 
clover, but lodges worse. The foliage is slightly bitter and not relished as 
well by cattle. For this reason it is better to mix it with red clover or with 
grasses. It matures about two weeks earlier than red clover; consequently, 
does not fit into mixtures as well as the red. It may be grown with early- 
maturing grasses such as orchard grass and redtop. Alsike clover and red- 
top make an admirable mixture for wet, sour soil, and may be used both 
for hay and pasture purposes. 

It seeds abundantly and the seed, though much smaller than that of 
red clover, commands about the same price. Six to eight pounds per acre 
when seeded alone are suflficient. Smaller amounts may be used in mix- 
tures. 

White Clover. — White clover is a low-growing perennial, having 
abundant solid, creeping stems. It is well adapted to moist soils in nearly 
all of the temperate zone. It is especially well adapted for pasture purposes 
and is frequently used wdth blue grass both in pastures and lawns. It 
seeds abundantly, often producing from two to six bushels per acre, the 
price ranging a little above that for common red clover. It has long been 
valued as a honey plant. The blossoms when excluded from insects 
usually set no seeds. 

Ladino Clover. — This clover is similar to white clover, but much larger. 
It has but recently been introduced into North America. It furnishes good 
yields of excellent pasturage and under favorable weather conditions attains 
sufficient size to be harvested for hay. 

Crimson Clover. — This is a winter annual adapted only to regions of 
mild winters. It is extensively used as a green manuring and cover crop. 
It may be seeded from May to August, either alone or in other crops such 
as standing corn. It makes hay of a good quality if cut just as it comes in 
flower. The plant is somewhat hairy and the seed heads "are abundantly 
supplied with long hairs. If the heads become rather mature, the hairs 
harden and cause serious trouble when fed to livestock. It is never 
advisable to feed straw from crimson clover to horses. Either the mature 
hay or straw causes hair balls in the stomach and intestines that frequently 
result in the death of the animals. Both the hay and seed crops are 
handled in about the same way as red clover. 

Sweet Clover. — This plant has come into prominence in recent years, 
and has been extensively discussed in the agricultural press. Recent 
careful inquiries and investigations indicate that it is destined to become 
an important legume, both as a forage crop and for soil improvement. 

There are several species of sweet clover, but the white sweet clover 
(Melilotus alba) is the most valuable under most conditions. It is adapted 
to a wide range of both soil and climatic conditions. It is exceedingly 
hardy and makes fair growth under adverse conditions. It is a biennial. 
It is often spoken of as a roadside weed, and occurs along roadways in many 



THE CLOVERS 119 



parts of nearly every state in the Union and the provinces of Canada. It 
seeds abundantly, the seed being similar to that of alfalfa. The plant 
also closely resembles alfalfa in its early stages of growth, although the 
blossoms and seed heads are quite different. 

It is deep rooted and the tops often attain a height of four to five feet. 
The composition of sweet clover is nearly the same as that of alfalfa. It 
is high in digestible protein and very nutritious as feed. Because of a 
peculiar odor and taste, animals seldom eat it at first. They soon acquire 
a taste for it and eat it with avidity and thrive on it. 

Sweet clover is especially valuable for soil improvement. Its greatest 
benefit will result by plowing it under the second season before it blooms. 
The seed should be sown at the rate of fifteen to twenty pounds of hulled 
seed, or at the rate of twenty-five to thirty pounds when hulls are present. 




Pasturing 8weet Clover in Kansas.' 



It may be seeded either in August or early in the spring. The methods of 
seeding are similar to those for red clover. 

Lespedeza or Japan Clover, — This is a small-growing summer annual, 
attaining a height of six to eighteen inches, depending on soil conditions. 
It is adapted especially to the cotton belt. It is to the South what white 
clover is in the North. It is especially adapted for grazing purposes, and a 
mixture of Bermuda grass and Lespedeza makes a good pasture for many 
parts of the South. It begins growth in the middle spring and reaches 
maturity in September or October. It may be distinguished from the 
yellow-flowered hop clovers which it closely resembles by its purple blos- 
soms, which do not appear until August or later, while the hop clovers bloom 
early. It seeds freely and perpetuates itself from year to year by self- 
seeding. 

Bur Clover. — This is a rather small-growing clover indigenous to 
Texas and California, and is closely related to alfalfa. It is of very little 
value for hay, and will give only one cutting. It serves best for winter 
and early spring grazing. It is especially valuable because it affords 



1 Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 
17 



120 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

grazing in the South for about two months before Bermuda grass and 
other summer grasses are available for this purpose. It makes a good 
combination with Bermuda grass for an all-year-round pasture. 

Hop Clover. — Common in the Southern and Eastern states on sandy 
soils and along roadsides. Periodically this plant comes into notice, due 
probably to favorable seasonal conditions inducing an abundant growth of 
unusual size. It often attracts the attention of farmers to such an extent 
that they become interested in its economic possibilities and send samples 
to their experiment station for information and advice. 

There are several species of hop clover and the taller one doubtless is 
worthy of cultivation for pasture purposes and for soil improvement, 
especially on run-down soils that are best suited for pasture purposes. 

REFERENCES 

"Clovers and How to Grow Them." Shaw. 

Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 8. "Clover Sickness." 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

323. "Clover Farming on Northern Jack-Pine Lands." 

441. "Lespedeza or Japan Clover." 

455. "Red Clover." 

550. "Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop." 

676. "Hard Clover Seed and Its Treatment in Hulling." 

693. "Bur Clover." 



CHAPTER 9 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa is one of the oldest forage crops. Its history has been closely 
related to that of man throughout past ages. It was highly esteemed by 
the ancient Persians as the most important of forage crops, and followed 
their invasion by Xerxes into Greece, 490 B. C. During the early centu- 
ries of the Christian era it spread throughout the countries of Europe, and it 
was brought to North America by the early colonists. It was introduced 
into the Eastern colonies under the name of Luzerne. It found its way into 




Map of the United States and Canada Showing Acreage of 
Alfalfa. Figures = Acres.^ 

California and other Western states probably by way of South America, 
and brought with it the Spanish name of alfalfa. 

Alfalfa is characterized by its deep root system, on which are found 
nodules similar to those described under the clovers. The bacteria in 
these nodules enable the alfalfa to secure nitrogen directly from the air. 
Alfalfa plants are propagated only by seeds. They do not spread, as do 
some of the clovers and many of the grasses, by creeping stems and under- 
ground root stocks. Alfalfa is a perennial and under favorable conditions 
lives many years and attains a large size. The crowns of the plant become 



Piper. 



1 Courtesy of The Macmillaa Company, N. Y. From "Forage Planta and Their Culture," by 



(121) 



122 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

much branched and old phi,nts frequently give rise to as many as 200 
stems. 

Distribution of Alfalfa. — This plant is grown as a crop in every state 
in the Union and most of the provinces of Canada. The map on the 
preceding page gives the acres by states and provinces. 

Soil and Climatic Adaptation. — Alfalfa is best adapted to a warm, dry 
climate. In North America it is most extensively and successfully grown 
under the semi-arid conditions that prevail in the western half of the United 
States. More than two-thirds of the hay grown in New Mexico is alfalfa. 
Over one-half of that grown in Colorado is alfalfa. Kansas produces more 
than Nebraska, and Nebraska more than the Dakotas. The relative 
production of alfalfa as compared with other forms of hay and forage 
decreases as we proceed northward and eastward. Alfalfa has been culti- 
vated so long that strains and varieties have been developed that are 
adapted to a wide range of climate. For this reason it is extensively grown 
in North America. It will -wdthstand great heat and extreme cold in the 
arid regions, but is more sensitive to such extremes in the humid regions, 
and rarely succeeds in tropical or sub-tropical regions w^here the hmnidity 
is high and rainfall abundant. 

It is adapted to a vnde range of soils, growing well on loose, sandy 
soils as well as upon heavy clays. It succeeds best on soils of medium 
texture that are capable of deep penetration by roots and well supplied 
with mineral plant foods. It will not succeed on soils closely underlaid 
with hardpan, impervious rock or standing water. Neither will it tln-ive 
on sour soils. 

Essentials for Success. — In the western half of the United States there 
are probably few localities where alfalfa will not succeed with the most 
ordinary treatment. Its growth would be curtailed or possibly prevented 
by the presence of too much alkali or by over-irrigation. In the eastern 
half of the United States where conditions are less favorable, there are 
certain essentials necessary to the success of this crop that must be carefully 
considered. These are good drainage, freedom from weeds, absence of 
acidity or presence of plenty of lime, a fair degree of organic matter in the 
soil, thorough preparation of seed-bed, most favorable time of seeding, 
inoculation of seed or seed-bed and the use of plenty of good seed. Added 
to this will be the after treatment, such as time of cutting, care in pasturing, 
cultivation and mulching. 

The treatment essential to success being so diverse and exacting, 
farmers contemplating growing alfalfa are advised to first undertake it on 
a small scale. There are a number of advantages in doing this, such as the 
practical experience gained and the providing of inoculated soil. 

Varieties of Alfalfa. — Thus far varieties and regional strains of alfalfa 
have been relatively unimportant. At least 95 per cent of the alfalfa in 
North America may be called ordinary alfalfa. A number of strains have 
been introduced from time to time, some of which are superior for hardi- 



ALFALFA 123 

ness. Aside from the common or ordinary alfalfa, Turkestan, Arabian, 
Peruvian and Grimm are of some importance. The common or ordinary 
alfalfa is that generally grown in North America, Europe, Argentine and 
Australia. 

Turkestan alfalfa closely resembles ordinary alfalfa, and neither plant 
nor seed can be easily distinguished from it. It is thought to be a little 
more drought and cold resistant than ordinary alfalfa, but is inferior to the 
ordinary alfalfa for the eastern half of the United States. 

Arabian alfalfa may be recognized by its hairiness, large leaflets, rapid 
growth and short life. It begins growth and continues to grow at a some- 
what lower temperature than common alfalfa. 

Peruvian alfalfa may be recognized by its somewhat bluish appearance, 
coarse, erect stems and large leaflets. 

Grimm alfalfa, brought to this country from Germany, has been culti- 
vated here for a long time, and through elimination of the less hardy plants 
has become adapted to severe climatic conditions. It is, therefore, recom- 
mended for the Northern states. It is claimed to resist severe pasturing 
better than ordinary alfalfa, and is thought to be somewhat more drought 
resistant. The seed is higher priced than that of the ordinary alfalfa. 

Sources of Seed. — Best results are usually secured by the use of locally 
grown seed. In the eastern half of the country, very little seed is produced, 
and imported seed must be relied upon. It is, therefore, advisable to secure 
seed from approximately the same latitude or preferably somewhat north 
of the latitude in which it is to be used. Nebraska-grown seed is good for 
Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. Kansas-grown seed is generally a little cheaper 
and will be good for Missouri and southern Illinois. Dakota seed will be 
higher priced, but should be used in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan. 

Alfalfa seed varies in purity, germination and price. It is, therefore, 
wise to secure samples from several sources before purchasing. These 
should be examined for impurities and tested for germination as a basis 
for calculating which will be the cheapest. None but first-class seed, 
free from noxious weed seeds and showing good germination, should 
be used. 

A pound of alfalfa contains about 220,000 seeds. If evenly sown on 
an acre these would average over five seeds to the square foot. Alfalfa 
fields one year old rarely contain more than twenty plants to the square 
foot, and older fields usually have less than ten. It is evident from this 
that a large percentage of the seeds sown fail to produce plants. It is very 
important that a full stand be secured on all parts of the field. Vacant 
spots give an opportunity for grass and weeds to start, and these encroach 
upon the alfalfa. 

The percentage of hard seeds in some lots runs very high and necessi- 
tates treating the seed to increase its germination. Hard seeds are treated 
\vith a mechanical device through which they are passed with much force, 
and the hard coats are weakened by striking against a hard, rough surface. 



124 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Alfalfa seed two years old may generally be used with safety. Old seed can 
be detected by its having a much darker color and less luster than fresh 
seed. Good seed will usually germinate in less than ten days. One 
hundred seeds placed between blotters or in a flannel cloth between two 
dinner plates will make a satisfactory test. 

Need for Fertilizers and Lime. — In the western half of North America 
commercial fertilizers and lime are seldom needed for alfalfa, but in the 
eastern half these are frequently of great importance. Large crops of 

alfalfa remove from the soil consider- 
able quantities of lime and the essen- 
tial mineral plant foods. For this 
reason, large crops cannot be main- 
tained except on fertile soils or soils 
that are well supplied with plant food 
and lime ; 400 or 500 pounds of a fer- 
tilizer containing about 10 per cent of 
phosphoric acid and 6 to 8 per cent of 
potash should be applied at the time 
of seeding. If the field is continued 
in alfalfa for several years it should be 
top dressed with manure or commer- 
cial fertilizer every year or two. 
There is no danger of getting the soil 
too rich for alfalfa. Manure should 
be used that is as free from weed and 
grass seeds as possible. Their intro- 
duction into the alfalfa should be guarded against, and the alfalfa culti- 
vated for weed destruction if necessary. 

Alfalfa has but little tolerance for soil acidity. It removes much lime 
from the soil and grows best on soils well supplied with lime. Soils should 
be tested for acidity before seeding to alfalfa, and a liberal supply of lime 
provided wherever there is any indication of its need. It is inunaterial in 
what form this is applied. The finely pulverized raw limestone is fully 
as effective as equivalent amounts in any other forms. 

Preparation of Seed-Bed. — Alfalfa demands a finely pulverized, moist, 
fairly compact seed-bed, free of weeds. This can generally l)e best provided 
by devoting the land during the preceding year to an inter-tilled crop, 
such as corn, potatoes or tomatoes. The preceding crop, if liberally 
manured, will obviate the necessity of applying manure directly for the 
benefit of alfalfa. This has the advantage of permitting weed and grass 
seeds in the manure to germinate and be destroyed. The residual effect 
of the manure will be sufficient to start the alfalfa. The best seed-bed 
can be secured by plowing late in the spring and disking or harrowing 
at intervals of ten days or two weeks until the first half of August. 
Such treatment pulverizes the soil, compacts it, conserves soil moisture 



ALFALFA OUTYIELDS 
OTHER HAY CROPS 


ALFALFA 


5.4 TONS PER ACRE 

2.5 »• ♦> " 

■■■■2^ •* ti 
HH 13 t 


RED CLOVER 


TIMOTHY 


BROME 
GRASS 







Alfalfa Out- yields other Hay Crops. 



ALFALFA 125 

and destroys weeds. It provides an ideal seed-bed on which alfalfa may- 
be seeded. 

Time, Rate, Depth and Manner of Seeding. — Alfalfa may be seeded 
either in the spring or late summer. In the western half of the United 
States spring seeding predominates. In the eastern half, summer seeding 
is more certain. Seeding either very early in the spring or too late in the 
season should be avoided. A satisfactory stand is more certain when the 
seeding is made on soil that is sufficiently warm to produce prompt germi- 
nation of the seed and rapid growth of the young plants. At 40 degrees 
north latitude spring seeding may be made during the last part of April 
or early May. Northward or at considerable elevations the date should be 
a little later, while southward or at low elevations it may be a little earlier. 
For latitude 40 degrees north, late summer seeding should generally be 
during the first half of August, northward it may be a little earlier, and 
southward considerably later depending on latitude. In any event there 
should be sufficient time for the alfalfa to become well established and 
make considerable growth before winter sets in. 

The rate of seeding varies greatly, but in the eastern half of the United 
States and Canada twenty to thirty pounds of seed per acre is advised. 
In the western half of the United States seeding generally ranges from ten 
to twenty pounds per acre. Where grown under the dry land system of 
farming, five to ten pounds of seed per acre often gives satisfactory results. 

The seed should be covered anywhere from one-half inch to two 
inches in depth, depending on character of soil and presence of moisture. 
The manner of seeding must be determined by local conditions and avail- 
able machinery. Alfalfa drills are advised when they are available. The 
most of the seed, however, is sown broadcast and covered with the harrow. 
Summer seeding is made without a nurse crop and spring seeding generally 
with a nurse crop. The principal nurse crops are winter wheat, rye, spring 
oats and barley. Barley is considered preferable to oats, and winter rye 
seeded in the spring is considered best of all. The nurse crops should be 
seeded rather thinly in order to encourage the growth of the alfalfa. 

Inoculation. — ^West of the Missouri River the soil seldom needs 
inoculation for the successful growth of alfalfa. East of that, however, 
inoculation is generally necessary. Wherever sweet clover is not a common 
weed and wherever alfalfa has never been grown, it is always advisable to 
inoculate this crop. 

There are two general methods of inoculation: (1) by soil transfer, 
(2) by artificial cultures. Inoculation by soil transfer is simple, easy and, 
with reasonable precautions, generally successful. It consists in securing 
from a well-established field or from a field where sweet clover grows, soil 
from that portion of the root zone where nodules are most abundant. 
This is transferred to the new field and spread broadcast at the rate of 300 
to 500 pounds per acre, and thoroughly mixed with the soil by disking or 
harrowing. The inoculated soil should be spread on a cloudy day, or in 



126 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

the morning or evening, and the field thoroughly disked and harrowed 
at once. 

When soil must be secured from a long distance the freight charges, 
cartage, bags, etc., may make it costly, in which case smaller amounts may 
be used and more time allowed for the inoculation to develop. Certain 
precautions are advised relative to the introduction of noxious weeds in this 
way. If alfalfa is to be grown rather extensively, it is economical to first 
seed a narrow strip of alfalfa through the center of the field and thoroughly 







A Standing Field of Alfalfa.* 

inoculate it. At the end of one year this will serve as a source of inoculation 
for the entire field, and a suitable drill or fertilizer distributor may be 
used going back and forth across the field at right angles to this strip, and 
filling the distributor from the soil of the strip each time the machine passes. 
Artificial cultures have recently been developed and may be secured 
from a number of sources. By carefully following directions, they are 
generally successful. The artificial cultures are applied, according to 
instructions, directly to the seed so that the bacteria are introduced into the 
soil on the seed and immediately where the young plants start growth. In 
this way the minimum number of bacteria accomplish the maximum result. 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



ALFALFA 127 

After-Treatment. — The after-treatment of alfalfa is more important 
than in case of the clovers and grasses. Clipping the alfalfa at the close 
of its first season has been quite generally recommended, but is a doubtful 
practice so far as direct benefit to the alfalfa is concerned. If, however, 
weeds and grasses are abundant, or if the alfalfa was seeded early and is 
blooming rather freely, clipping in the fall is advised. The clipping should 
be so timed as to prevent maturing of weed seeds. The alfalfa should be 
chpped rather high and the clippings left on the field for winter protection. 

Winter killing of alfalfa is most severe during the first winter and in 
severe climates or on soils subject to heaving. Winter protection by 
mulching or otherwise is advised. The more hardy varieties of alfalfa will 
stand a temperature twenty to thirty degrees below zero if the soil is rea- 
sonably dry. The chief trouble occurs as a result of the plants being heaved 
out of the soil by repeated freezing and thawing, generally toward the close 
of the winter. 

Disking and harrowing alfalfa fields have been frequently recom- 
mended for the purpose of killing weeds and grass, for loosening the soil and 
for splitting the crowns of the alfalfa plants. The improvement of soil and 
destruction of weeds is justifiable, but injury to the alfalfa plants should 
always be avoided. Under favorable conditions considerable injury may 
not prove serious, but in the eastern part of the country, injury to the 
crowns of the plants results in decay of the roots and shortens their fife. 
The ordinary disk is, therefore, not recommended. Suitable harrows and 
the spike-toothed alfalfa disk harrow may be used to good advantage. 
The spring-toothed harrow with the teeth brought to a sharp point is 
recommended. There is enough spring in the teeth so that they will pass 
around the crowns of the alfalfa plants without serious injury, and at the 
same time will uproot small weeds and grasses. 

Cultivation should take place just after cutting, and is generally not 
necessary during the first year of the alfalfa. 

Making Alfalfa Hay. — The time of cutting alfalfa should be carefully 
regulated in order not to injure it. If cut too early the second crop is slow 
in starting and the exposed crowns of the plants may be injured by hot, dry 
weather. Neither is it advisable to delay the cutting, for this will result 
in clipping off the new shoots that produce the new crop. Alfalfa should be 
cut for hay when the small shoots starting from the crown and which 
produce the next crop are one-half inch to one and one-half inches in length. 
At this time about one-tenth of the blossoms will usually be out. In the 
eastern part of North America leaf spot is quite common and spreads 
rapidly through the field as the plants approach the hay-making stage. If 
this trouble is very prevalent the leaves fall rapidly and harvesting should 
be hastened somewhat to prevent loss. A fair degree of maturity of the 
alfalfa makes the curing of hay easier than if cut when too succulent. In 
the western half of the United States there is very little difficulty in this 
respect. Weather conditions are more favorable and hay of good quality 



128 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



can be made with the minimum amount of labor. In the eastern half of 
the country rains are prevalent, especially at the time of the first cutting. 
This calls for special precautions and often necessitates extra labor and the 
use of canvas covers to secure hay without serious injury. 

It is advised to cut in the evening and early morning, and follow the 
mower with the tedder before any of the leaves become dry. The second 
teddering at right angles to the first is advised if the alfalfa is heavy. 
With favorable weather it may be possible to put the alfalfa in the windrow 
toward evening of the first day. One more day's exposure in the windrow 
under favorable conditions will generally cure it sufficiently to go directly 

to stack or mow. 
This reduces handling 
to the minimum and 
prevents loss by 
shattering. 

If weather condi- 
tions are threatening, 
it will be best to put 
into moderate-sized 
shocks at the close of 
the first day, and 
cover with canvas to 
protect from rains. 
It requires from three 
to seven days to cure 
in the shock, depend- 
ing on weather condi- 
tions. 

A little more than 
two-fifths of alfalfa hay is leaves and about three-fifths stems. The 
leaves, however, contain fully three-fifths of the jDrotein. It is, therefore, 
advisable to save the leaves as fully as possible. Do not rake or tedder 
alfalfa in the middle of the day if dry. This is sure to shatter the leaves 
and cause serious loss. 

Number of Cuttings and Yield. — Alfalfa is a remarkable hay and forage 
plant because of its long life and the frequency with which it may be cut 
every year. The number of cuttings varies with the locality and ranges 
from two or three cuttings in the provinces of Canada and the northern tier 
of states to as many as ten or eleven cuttings annually in the Imperial Valley 
in California. In the warmer portions of Texas seven or eight cuttings 
are not uncommon. In most parts of the country, a second crop may be 
harvested within from thirty to forty days after the first cutting. In warm 
regions where the growing season is long, cuttings durmg this season may 
be made about every five weeks. 

' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 




Curing Alfalfa Hay in Shocks.^ 



ALFALFA 



129 



ALFALFA 



BALANCES 
THE CORN 



RATION 



KANS. EXP.-I4 PIGS- ISO DAYS 



The yield is generally largest for the first cutting of the season and 
declines slightly for subsequent cuttings. Much, however, will depend 
upon rainfall and available moisture which influences the growth. 

Alfalfa yields about twice as much as red clover and, being richer in 
protein, produces about three times as much protein per acre. 

Other Uses of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa makes an excellent soiling crop and 
produces a succulent nitrogenous roughage, especially desirable for dairy 
cows. Since it may be cut three or more times each season it may be quite 
extensively used for this purpose. It, therefore, takes a very important 
place in a soiling sys- 
tem wherever it can 
be satisfactorily 
grown. 

The last cutting 
of alfalfa comes at 
about the right time 
to combine with corn 
for the making of en- 
silage. One load of 
alfalfa to every three 
or four loads of corn 
makes an excellent 
combination. Alfalfa 
is sometimes made 
int'O silage by itself, 
but makes a rather 
sour, slimy product. 

While alfalfa is 
not a pasture plant 
and is easily injured 
by pasturing, it may 
be used especially for 
young stock and for swine. It makes a most excellent pasture for the 
latter, and where it is to be used for this purpose will carry about forty 
pigs and their dams per acre without being injured. It is generally 
thought advisable to divide the field into two or three parts, pasturing one 
part for a period, and then turning into another part. Frequently some 
hay may be harvested in addition to pasturing. 

Alfalfa makes a range for poultry and may also be fed to poultry and 
swine in the form of hay. 

Composition and Feeding Value. — The composition of alfalfa is given 
in Table I in Part III. The nutritive ratio of alfalfa hay is about 
1 to 4. Extensive experiments at a number of experiment stations 



CORN & WATER 

IN DRY LOT 

180 DAYS 



KANS. BUL. 192 




CORN S 

ALFALFA PASTURE 

80 DAYS 

CORN & 

ALFALFA HAY 

100 DAYS 



Comparison op Hogs Fed on Corn and on Alfalfa.^ 



* Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Agricultural Extension Department, 
pamphlet "Livestock on Every Farm." 



From 



130 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

have clearly demonstrated the high feeding value of alfalfa. Experiments 
with forty cows covering a period of two years at the New Jersey Experi- 
ment Station clearly demonstrated that eleven pounds of alfalfa hay were 
equal in feeding value to eight pounds of wheat bran. Plenty of alfalfa 
as roughage materially reduces the bills for the purchase of protein in 
costly concentrates. 

The hay is exceedingly palatable and highly digestible and is eaten 
with avidity by all classes of livestock. When fed to horses the ration 
should be limited. Horses, if allowed to eat their fill, generally consume 
nearly twice as much as is necessary to provide the required protein of their 
ration. This results in unnecessary waste of feed. Alfalfa hay and corn 
make a good combination, since the corn tends to properly balance the 
ration. 

Considerable alfalfa hay is made into alfalfa meal for shipment to the 
eastern markets and is quite extensively used in rations for dairy cattle 
and also for poultry. 

Irrigation of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is exceptionally well adapted to irriga- 
tion and a large portion of that grown in North America is irrigated. The 
amount of water to use will be determined chiefly by the character of the 
soil and rainfall of the region. It is a good practice to irrigate rather hber- 
ally and at rather remote intervals. Alfalfa is so deep-rooted that the soil 
should be thoroughly wet to the depth of three feet or more. Ordinarily, 
one good irrigation should produce a full cutting of alfalfa. It is, therefore, 
customary to irrigate the fields immediately after the hay is removed and 
this irrigation should be sufficient to last until the next cutting. With 
this system certain precautions are called for such as to prevent the scalding 
of the young and tender shoots that are just starting to grow at this time. 
Where fields are deeply and rapidly flooded with water carrying much sedi- 
ment, a deposition on the young shoots frequently causes injury. It is 
advisable to irrigate carefully, providing for slow movement of the water 
across the fields without attaining any considerable depth at any point. 
Over-irrigation is to be avoided, since it not only wastes water, but often 
causes a rise in the ground-water table and brings alkali salts to the surface 
of the soil. 

Winter irrigation is practiced in some localities where the winters are 
mild and where water is abundant at this time of the year. The principal 
object is to conserve water which would otherwise go to waste. This is 
especially desirable where water is scarce in summer. Such winter irriga- 
tion will often result in one good crop that could otherwise not be secured. 

Seed Production. — The production of alfalfa seed in North America 
is confined chiefly to the semi-arid regions. East of the Missouri River 
the production of seed is small, except when drought prevails. It is 
estimated that about one-half of the seed used in North America is produced 
on irrigated lands in regions of dry summers. There is also a considerable 
amount produced on unirrigated semi-arid lands, and such seed is con- 



ALFALFA 



131 



sidered preferable for dry farming purposes. When produced on unirri- 
gated lands alfalfa is seeded very thinly. In some cases it is seeded in rows 
sufficiently far apart to permit of cultivation. Isolated plants that can 
branch abundantly and receive plenty of sunlight, seed more abundantly 
than when they are close together. When grown under irrigation, irriga- 
tion water is withheld during the period of seed formation. The presence 
of rains or the application of water stimulates the 
vegetative growth and reduces seed production. 
Usually the second crop is utilized for seed pro- 
duction, although in the extreme Northern states the 
first crop is necessarily used. There are various 
conditions that influence the yield of seed, such as 
thickness of stand, moisture supply, conditions favor- 
able to pollination, etc. Yields of as much as twenty 
bushels per acre have been reported, but eight bush- 
els are considered a good jdeld. Two to five bushels 
probably represent the average crop. 

Little is known relative to seed production east 
of the Missouri River, although numerous observa- 
tions have shown that plants frequently seed quite 
abundantly. In the corn belt it is quite possible 
that certain crops could be used for seed to good 
advantage. . The probable yield of seed is indicated 
if the crop has been in bloom for some time and 
considerable seed is set before new shoots appear. 
If dry weather prevails when these conditions are 
evident there is a fair chance of a crop of seed. 

The hope of securing varieties adapted to eastern conditions lies in the 
possibility of seed production in the various localities. 

The method of harvesting the seed of alfalfa is essentially the same as 
that for red clover. 




A Well-set Cluster 
OF Alfalfa Pods.^ 



REFERENCES 

"The Book of Alfalfa." Coburn. 

"Alfalfa in America." Wing. 

"Clovers and How to Grow Them," pages 118-193, Shaw. 

Missouri Extension Service Circular 6. "Growing Alfalfa in Missouri." 

Delaware Expt. Station Bulletin 110. "Alfalfa." 

Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 259. "Alfalfa Growing in Wisconsin." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 75. "Alfalfa Seed Production." 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

315. "Legume Inoculation." 

339. "Alfalfa." 

495! "Alfalfa'Seed Production." 



^Courtesy of U. S. Dept of Agriculture. From Farmers' Bulletin 495. 



CHAPTER 10 

Meadows and Pastures 

Success with livestock is conditioned on the production of good grass. 
This may be in the form of meadows or pastures, but a combination of the 
two is generally desirable. In latitudes of long winters the importance of 
meadows may predominate, whereas in regions of short winters, pastures 
may be the more important. With minor exceptions, meadows and 
pastures are the most economical source of the farm income. 

As a rule, the highest type of general agriculture includes the rearing 
of farm animals. They may be considered machines for the manufacturing 
of the roughage produced on the farm into more concentrated and valuable 
products, such as meat, milk, butter, wool, etc. These reciuire more skill 
on the part of the farmer and give to him continuous emj^loyment. 

Extent, Value and Importance. — It is estimated that about thirty 
per cent of the improved land in the United States is pasture land. The 
largest area of land used for grazing is embodied in the extensive ranges 
lying in the western half of the United States. To this range land and the 
permanent pastures on farms may be added large deforested areas that are 
capable of producing pasture. The value of the products per acre from 
the grazed land is exceedingly low, but since the area is so large, the aggre- 
gate return is great. The return per acre from meadow land is also 
comparatively low, but much larger than that from pasture lands. No 
statistics are available by which to estimate the returns frcm pasture 
lands, although there are fairly accurate statistics for the meadow^s, as 
indicated in the chapter on "Meadow and Pasture Grasses." 

Essential Qualities of Meadows and Pastures. — The essential qualities 
of meadow grasses are given in the chapter under that name. It is not so 
essential that meadows become permanent, except in case of wet land or 
land too rough or stony to be cultivated, and which for any reason cannot 
be pastured. 

It is generally important, however, that pastures be made as permanent 
as possible. This calls for a mixture of grasses that are either very long 
lived or that are capable of reproduction under pasture conditions. A 
good pasture should start growth early in the season and continue to produce 
until late in the fall. The grasses should be palatable, nutritious and present 
variety and give abundant growth. They should also form a continuous, 
compact turf that will withstand much tramping by animals. A variety 
of grasses that will provide for growth under both moist and dry soil 
conditions is also advantageous. The deep-rooted grasses and clovers 
can, therefore, be advantageously included with the shallow-rooted ones 

(132) 




Sheep Pasturing on Hilly Land.^ 

Land that is too roush or steep for plowing can often he made profitable by using 
it for grazing purposes. 



1 Courtesy of " The Fii'Id. Illustnitcd," N. Y. 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 133 

Such as blue grass and white clover. The latter are more substantial, both 
in quality of grazing and in the character and durability of turf which they 
form. 

Advantages of Meadows and Pastures. — Where land is moderate to 
low in price and labor is costly, no feed will produce results with cattle and 
sheep as economically as good pasture. While a given area in meadow will 
produce three times as much weight in hay as it will in pasture, yet there 
is about three times as much protein in a given weight of dry material in 
pasture grass as there is in the same material in hay. The increased energy 
value of the hay over that of an equal area of pasture will generally be 
offset by the increased labor required in harvesting and feeding the hay. 
Meadows require on an average one unit of man and horse labor per acre 
annually. This consists of ten hours work per year. The cultivated crops 



f^-^^^^^^^^Mm^^^a^m 







Live iStock on Pastuke. 

require from two to as high as fifteen or sometimes twenty units of labor 
per acre. 

Pastures, on the other hand, require no labor unless it be for the pur- 
pose of applying manure or fertilizers, or for improvement by re-seeding or 
cultivating. It is from the standpoint of labor that meadows and pastures 
are especially economical. When land values become exceptionally high, 
farmers may be justified in reducing the acreage of pasture and resorting 
to cultivated crops as a source of feed for livestock. This is an economical 
problem that must be determined by local conditions. 

Meadows and pastures make use of land which cannot be economically 
used for cultivated crops. This is especially true in the case of woodland 
pastures or pastures along streams that are irregular and subject to over- 
flow. Stony portions of farms are often utilized as meadows or pastures. 
Irregular corners, cut off by roads or streams, are more economically 
devoted to hay than to a cultivated crop requiring tillage. 

Soil and Climatic Requirements. — Most of the grasses and clovers 
succeed best in moist, cool climates and on soils that range from medium 
to heavy in texture. On the other hand, there are a few grasses and clovers 



134 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

that succeed in regions of continuous high temperature. There are, how- 
ever, no regions in the world within the tropics that are especially promi- 
nent for the production of meadows and pastures. These attain their 
greatest perfection in temperate climates with abundant and well-distrib- 
uted rainfall. England and Scotland represent the ideal conditions for 
meadows and pastures. The range in variety of grasses and clovers makes 
possible meadows and pastures which are more or less successful in all 
parts of North America. Of course, there are considerable areas of sandy 
soils, especially in the warmer sections, that are impracticable of utiliza- 
tion in this way. 

Formation of Meadows and Pastures. — Since meadows and pastures 
are to remain for a considerable period of time, the necessity of thorough 
preparation for their establishment is more imperative than in case of 
annual crops. The successful orchardist goes to much expense in the 
preparation of land and the setting of trees for the orchard, realizing that 
orcharding is a long-time proposition. The same policy is applicable in 
case of permanent pastures or meadows. The shorter the period of time 
that a meadow is to remain as such, the less will be the expense justified 
in its establishment. 

The first consideration is the adaptation of the land for meadow or 
pasture purposes. The value of the land and the possibility of its utiliza- 
tion for other purposes should be considered. Consideration must also be 
given to the variety and character of grasses adapted to the soil and climate 
and that will meet the requirement of the livestock to be pastured. No 
definite formula can be given, since conditions vary greatly. 

Preparation of Soil. — The preparation of the soil for either meadows or 
pastures should begin at least a year in advance of the time of seeding. 
There are two things essential to the establishment of grasses and clovers, 
namely, absence from weeds and a good physical condition of the soil. 
This may be provided by growing an inter-tilled crop which is given 
thorough cultivation during the year preceding the seeding of grass. 

Organic matter in the soil is decidedly helpful for both grasses and 
clovers, but not essential. In plowing for seeding grasses and clovers, 
manure and organic matter should not be turned under too deeply, but 
should be left as near the surface as possible. A thorough preparation of 
the seed-bed is essential for both meadows and pastures. For meadows, 
the soil should not only be thoroughly pulverized and made moist and 
compact, but should also be level to facilitate cutting at a uniform height. 
The presence of hummocks or depressions in a meadow means that some 
of the plants will be cut close to the crowns and others cut far above. 

A moist, compact, finely-pulverized seed-bed is essential in pastures, 
but it need not be necessarily level, since animals can graze with as much 
satisfaction on uneven land. 

When seeding is to be made in August it is well to plow the land in 
the spring. An occasional disking or harrowing during the summer will 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 135 

destroy the weeds, conserve moisture and provide a pulverized seed-bed 
for the grass. It is advisable to plow land for spring seeding of grass and 
clover the preceding year, or at least several weeks in advance of seeding 
time, in order that it may become thoroughly settled before seeding. 

Meadow and Pasture Seed Mixtures. — From the standpoint of both 
variety and total yield, mixtures give best results in both meadows and 
pastures. Experiments at several experiment stations report yields for 
mixtures of two or more grasses and clovers that exceed the yield of any of 
the varieties entering into the mixture when seeded alone under identical 
conditions. There are a few exceptions, namely, that of alfalfa which is 
cut several times a year, and which generally gives best results when grown 
alone. The same has been found true with ItaHan rye grass. 

Mixtures yield better than pure cultures because: (1) the require- 
ments of the different plants entering into the mixtures are dissimilar and 
do not make them direct competitors for plant food; (2) the root habits 
being different, their distribution through the soil is more thorough; 
(3) the average yearly return is more nearly even through a long period of 
time; (4) variation in light requirements of different plants enable some 
species to do well in the^shade of taller ones, thus increasing the quantity 
of herbage; and (5) legmnes mixed with grasses increase the nitrogen 
supply for the latter. 

As before indicated, mixtures for mowing purposes should contain 
only plants that mature near the same time. This will generally confine 
the mixture to two or three species, although occasionally a larger number 
may be advantageously used. Timothy and red clover constitute the 
mixture most common and practical over a large region of the hay-produc- 
ing district of North America. Redtop and alsike clover are frequently 
included, especially where soils are wet and inclined to be sour. Alsike 
clover and redtop are occasionally used without the timothy and red 
clover. Orchard grass and alsike clover work well together, both as to 
character of growth and time of maturity. 

In pasture mixtures there is opportunity for a much greater variety 
and wider range as to time of maturity in the plants used. In North 
America, however, mixtures made up of a great number of clovers and 
grasses are rather unusual, although these seem to be the rule in pasture 
mixtures of England and Scotland. 

Soil and climatic conditions are so diverse that it is impossible to enu- 
merate all the mixtures suited to different conditions and localities for any 
extensive region or for different purposes. Prominence should be given, 
however, to those grasses that are best adapted to local conditions and best 
meet the needs. One or more species that will make quick growth and give 
early pasture should be included in such a mixture. The following general 
suggestions are offered: 

In regions adapted to Kentucky blue grass, add white clover, red clover 
and timothy. 

18 



136 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

On wet soils adapted to redtop, add white clover and alsike clover. 

On poor upland soils use redtop, Canada blue grass and white clover. 
Under certain conditions brome grass may be included. 

Where Bermuda grass thrives best, add Lespedeza clover, bur clover 
and Italian rye grass. 

In addition to the grasses mentioned, orchard grass is desirable, because 
it furnishes early pasture. 

If there is any doubt relative to the purity of the grass and clover 
seeds to be used, a sample should be submitted to the state experiment 
station for examination and test. One familiar with grass and clover seeds 
may make his own inspection by the use of a hand lens, and may also make 
his own germination test by the use of white blotting paper moistened and 
placed in an ordinary dinner plate covered with another to retain moisture. 
One or two hundred seeds placed between the blotters and kept at favorable 
temperature will enable oue to determine the percentage of germination. 
Careful inspection every day or two should be made to keep the blotters 
continuously moist. 

Seeding Grasses and Clovers. — A full crop of grass, whether for a 
meadow or pasture, necessitates a full stand of plants. The first essential 
to this is the requisite number of viable seeds, well distributed on every 
part of the field. There are many factors that influence the stand besides 
the rate of seeding. 

Rates of seeding for the different grasses and clovers when used alone 
are given in the chapter on ''Grasses and Clovers." A few species only 
enter into the average meadow mixture. As a rule, the ratio of the amount 
of seed for the different species entering into a meadow mixture will be a 
little larger than the amount when seeded alone. For example, timothy 
seeded at the rate of 15 pounds alone and red clover at the rate of 12 
pounds, when seeded together would require on an average of about 9 
pounds of timothy and 7 pounds of clover, making a total of 16 pounds as 
compared with one-half of the sum of the two individual rates, which would 
be 13i 

The depth of seeding has already been discussed under several of the 
species of grasses and clovers. The depth in case of mixtures should be 
regulated with even more accuracy than in seeding one species only. It 
should meet as accurately as possible the needs of the leading grasses and 
clovers in the mixture. In special cases it may be found advantageous to 
drill the clovers and broadcast the smaller grass seeds, such as timothy, 
redtop and blue grass. The depth is also controlled largely by character 
of soil and weather conditions. In midsummer, when the soil is dry and the 
temperature high, seeds should be covered rather deeply. In the cool, 
moist portion of the year, very shallow covering is better. In no case can 
grass and clover seeds be covered more than two inches without suffering 
much loss. With the smaller grass seeds, one-half inch to an inch is 
generally sufficient. 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 137 

The time of seeding is subject to considerable latitude, but there are 
two seasons of the year that generally give best results. These are very 
early in the spring or rather late in the summer. These two seasons will be 
subject to some modification, depending upon weather conditions. It 
is wise to seed when the soil is in a good moisture condition so as to insure 
quick germination. As a rule, it is not advisable in case of summer seeding 
to seed just before a heavy rain. Such a rain compacts the soil and the 
hot weather that is likely to follow will form a crust that the small plants 
cannot penetrate. Seeds deposited in a dry soil may be germinated by a 
light shower followed by dry weather that will cause the small plants to 
perish. 

Grasses seeded in summer may be broadcasted on a well-prepared 
seed-bed immediately following the harrow. One additional harrowing 
will sift the seeds down into the soil and effect a satisfactory covering. If 
the soil is dry the first harrowing may be followed by the plank drag. This 
will mash the small clods, compact the soil, bring the moisture nearer 
the surface and germinate the seed. 

The manner of seeding depends largely on seasonal condition of the 
soil and character of grass-seed mixture. Grasses and clovers are generally 
sown broadcast. There are a number of forms of seeders. The grass-seed 
attachment to the grain drill predominates where fall seeding with wheat 
occurs. It is also extensively used where the drill is used for spring seeding 
of oats. The wheelbarrow seeder and the hand seeder are extensively used 
when seeded alone or on grain fields where drills are not employed. Slant- 
toothed spike harrows are most generally used for covering the seed when 
broadcasted in this way. Brush harrows are sometimes used when the 
seed is very small and the seed-bed very mellow. This avoids covering 
too deeply. In any case, implements should be used that do not tend to 
drag trash or soil and result in bunching the seed. Much seeding is done 
in the winter and very early spring which calls for no covering. In this 
case the seed is covered by the freezing and thawing of the soil and by rains 
and winds. 

Late fall and early spring seeding usually takes place with a nurse 
crop. In this way the cost of seed-bed preparation is charged chiefly to 
the grain. This is the cheapest possible way of seeding grass other than 
that of sowing it in the spring to be covered by the freezing and thawing and 
rains. The nature of the nurse crop is important. Moderately thin seeding 
and the use of early varieties generally favor a good catch of grass. 

Seeding without a nurse crop calls for especially well-prepared seed- 
bed and freedom from weeds. Such seeding generally does best in the late 
summer. 

Treatment of Meadows and Pastures. — Of all the farm crops, the 
meadows and pastures are probably the most neglected. Meadows 
usually receive more care and attention than pastures. The treatment 
accorded meadows will consist chiefly: (1) in the application of manures 




' Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chenucal Company, Richmond, Va. From V.- C. Fertilizer Crop 
Books. 

^38 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 139 

and fertilizers, (2) re-seeding of the grasses and clovers in case of failure, 
(3) cultivation to maintain a good physical condition of the soil, and (4) 
cutting of weeds when they become serious. 

The cultivation given to meadows, while rather unusual, will consist 
mainly in disking and harrowing. These operations will frequently be 
demanded wherever re-seeding is required and may be used for the 
destruction of weeds and the loosening of the soil. There are now on 
the market certain forms of spiked disks designed especially for this type 
of work. 

Cultivation is even more applicable to pastures than it is to meadows. 
Pastures are more permanent, or at least remain for a long series of years 
without being disturbed. Certain grasses frequently become sod-bound. 
As a result of close grazing, weeds also frequently become numerous. The 
tramping of the animals tends to compact the soil. Cultivation is benefi- 
cial for all of these difficulties. Harrowing spreads the droppings of the 
animals and affords a more effective distribution of the manure for the 
benefit of the grass. 

Meadows should not be maintained for too long a period. Better 
results have been secured by plowing and re-seeding than to continue too 
long in consecutive crops of grass. In pastures the situation is much 
different. There are records of pastures forty and fifty years in grass 
without being disturbed. This applies, however, to those regions in which 
the soils and climate are especially adapted to the typical pasture grasses 
and clovers, such for example as Kentucky and Canada blue grass and 
white clover. Where pastures are prone to run out in a few years, it is 
better as a rule to re-seed. This, of course, applies only to lands that are 
capable of cultivation and devotion to other crops. 

Care of Meadows and Pastures. — The fife of a meadow and the main- 
tenance of its productivity may be prolonged by exercising certain precau- 
tions in connection with its care and the harvesting of the crops. It is 
unwise to pasture animals or to haul manure onto a field when the soil is 
too wet. The more permanent the nature of the meadow the greater 
should be the care exercised. Meadows should go into the winter well 
protected by either sufficient second growth or proper mulching with ma- 
nure. It is, therefore, unwise to closely pasture the aftermath of meadows 
late in the season. In favorable years a moderate amount of pasturing 
will not be undesirable. If weeds occur in considerable numbers, late 
summer or fall clipping to prevent seeding is advised. 

Pastures should not be grazed too early in the spring. It is undesir- 
able: (1) from the standpoint of not giving the grass a sufficient start, and 
(2) through injury by tramping and compacting the soil when it is wet. 
It is also unwise to pasture closely too late in the fall, since pastures, like 
meadows, should have winter protection. It is never wise to pasture too 
closely at any time of the year. Close pasturing reduces the vitality of the 
plants and their subsequent producing capacity. The packing of the soil 



140 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

by animals under favorable conditions will be overcome in temperate 
climates by the freezing and thawing during the winter. 

In grasses the growth takes place at the base of the leaves and lower 
portions of the internodes, so that grazing does not destroy the plants 
unless the plants or portions thereof are injured below the point of 
growth. 

The grazing capacity of a pasture will be determined by the care given 
to it and the manner in which it is grazed. Its grazing capacity should be 
fully utilized, and it is believed that the pasture will be maintained fully 
as well, and sometimes better, in this way than when not fully grazed. In 
pastures that are not fully utilized many weeds occur that go to seed and 
result in weedy pastures within a few years. No animals are better for 
destroying weeds than sheep, although all classes of livestock will eat most 
kinds of weeds when there is a shortage of grasses. There are few experi- 
ments in America on pastures and pasturing. 

Improvement of Meadows and Pastures. — "An ounce of prevention 
is worth a pound of cure" applies especially to meadows and pastures. 
This is pretty thoroughly covered in the treatment and care of meadows 
and pastures discussed in the preceding topics. Brush pastures may be 
improved by removing the brush by clearing, by firing or by pasturing with 
goats. The latter is perhaps the most economical method, provided gcats 
can be secured and disposed of without loss. This not only cleans the 
pastures, but utilizes the removed product in the form of brush, weeds, etc. 

Wet pastures may be improved by underdrainage. This net cnly 
encourages the growth of the more nutritious and better grasses and 
clovers, but protects the pasture against injury through tramping I y 
animals wdien too wet. The expense of drainage for pasture land mutt 
not be too great. 

Manuring, Fertilizing and Liming. — Sour soils should be liberally 
limed when prepared for meadows or pastures. Meadows that are to be 
continued for several years may be top-dressed with lime to good advan- 
tage, and pastures may be top-dressed at intervals of six to ten years. The 
benefits from liming will be determined chiefly by the acidity of the soil 
and the proportion of clovers that enter into the meadow and pasture 
mixtures. 

Barnyard and stable manure is advantageously used in the establish- 
ment of meadows and pastures. It is often advisable to apply the manure 
to the crop preceding the one in which the grass is seeded. On the other 
hand, meadows that are to remain for several years may be advantageously 
top-dressed with light api)lications of manure, greatly to the benefit of the 
grass. Such top-dressing has been found profitable wherever manure is 
available, or may be purchased at low cost. The better sod resulting is 
also beneficial to the crops which are to follow the meadow. 

It is unusual to apply manure to pastures once established, since the 
droppings of the animals, if properly distributed, go far towards meeting 



MEADOWSAND PASTURES 



141i 



the needs of the soil. In all probability the manure can be more advan- 
tageously used on the meadows and other crops. 

Experiments at several of the state experiment stations have demon- 
strated that moderate amounts of complete commercial fertilizers can be 
economically used on meadows. The more perfect the stand of grass, the 
larger the increased yields resulting from such treatment. While the com-; 
position of the fertilizer will differ somewhat for different soils and grasses, 
that for the grasses pro])er should contain about equal percentages of thu 




Good Pasture Land.' 



three fertilizing constituents. Nitrogen is essential in increasing vegetative 
growth. A home-made mixture consisting of 150 pounds per acre each of 
nitrate of soda and acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of muriate of potash, is 
recommended. This should be applied broadcast very early in the spring 
just as the grass is beginning to start. 

Since nitrogen is so expensive, clovers should be used in both meadows 
and pastures for the benefit of the grasses. They also increase the protein 
content of both the hay and grazed product. 

Utilizing Aftermath. — The amount of aftermath or second growth on 
meadows depends on the nature of the grasses, the time of cutting the first 

'Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. 



142 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

crop and the weather conditions which prevail. With early cutting of the 
first crop and favorable subsequent weather conditions, the second crop 
may be as large and well worth harvesting for hay. Certain precautions 
in this connection are necessary, namely, not cutting so late as to prevent 
further growth for winter protection. There is no objection to pasturing 
the aftermath if not pastured too closely and if the character of grasses is 
such as not to be seriously injured by the tramping of animals. The future 
life and use of the pasture will be a factor in this connection. 

Capacity of Pastures. — ^The capacity of pastures varies all the way 
from fifty acres to the animal unit in case of the range pastures of the West 
to one acre per animal unit on first-class pastures in humid regions. The 
capacity is also measured by the length of grazing season, and this is depend- 
ent chiefly upon latitude and elevation. It is also influenced by the nature 
of the pasture grasses, some prolonging their growth into the cooler portion 
of the year. Experiments show that more product is secured as hay than 
can be secured when the same grasses are pastured. This has been deter- 
mined by comparing the relative yield of cuttings at short intervals with 
cutting once at maturity. Such experiments have given nearly three times 
as much dry matter in the form of hay as was secured in frequent cuttings. 
The protein content of the new growth was much higher and aggregated 
nearly as much in frequent cuttings as in the matured product. 

Pasture experiments in Missouri showed average daily gains of 1.65 
and 1.85 pounds for yearlings and two-year-old steers respectively during 
the summer season. At the usual charge for pasturage in that state, the 
estimated cost per hundred pounds of live weight was $1.60 and $1.90 
respectively. Pasture experiments in Virginia covering several years gave 
gains in live weight of 150 pounds per acre annually. This was on average 
blue grass pasture in that state. The average pasture in the humid region 
should produce 150 pounds live weight in cattle per acre annually. 

Composition and Palatability of Pasture Grass and Hay. — The com- 
position of various kinds of grasses and hay is given in Table I, in 
Part III. The composition of grass mixtures will be determined by the 
relative portions of the species entering into it, and also by the stage of 
growth when harvested, and the conditions under which grown. Nitro- 
genous fertilizers have been found to somewhat increase the protein content 
of the grasses. 

The palatability and digestibility of grasses as grazed are doubtless 
much greater than those for mature hay. The labor required for harvesting 
the hay is also saved. 

Temporary Pastures. — Temporary pastures are generally provided to 
meet early needs and are designed for short periods. They consist of 
annual plants, of which there are many species. These will be determined 
by soil and climatic adaptation and the character of animals to be grazed. 
Oats, sorghum and red clover make a good combination. Oats make rapid 
growth during the early part of the season, while sorghum grows more 



MEADOWS AND PASTURES 143 

rapidly with the approach of warm weather. As these two crops are becom- 
ing exhausted, the clover takes their place. This mixture is suited to spring 
seeding and can be pastured from the latter part of June to the close of the 
season. Another mixture consists of spring wheat, barley and oats, using 
about one-third of the usual sowing of each. These may be pastured as 
soon as they attain sufficient size to afford a good supply of pasturage. 
Another mixture frequently used consists of rye, winter wheat and winter 
vetch sown in the fall. This will afford pasture in the spring earlier than 
the spring-sown grains, and if seeded fairly early may furnish some winter 
pasture. In pasturing the annual crops, waste by tramping may be pre- 
vented by restricting the area grazed by means of hurdles or temporary 
fences. Such pastures require knowledge relative to the date crops must 
be sowTi to afford pasture when needed. In this respect it resembles the 
provision for soiling crops which are to be cut and fed from day to day. 

REFERENCES 

"Meadows and Pastures." Wing. 

"Forage and Fiber Crops." Hunt, pages 1-274. 

"Farm Grasses." Spillman. 

Pennsylvania ]3xpt. Station Bulletin 101. "Meadows and Pastures." 



CHAPTER 11 

Miscellaneous Annual hay and forage Crops 

Of the miscellaneous annual hay and forage crops the legumes take 
first place. They are important both from the standpoint of high feeding 
value and of the benefit derived from them by the soil. In regions adapted 
to alfalfa or the clovers, annual legumes find a minor place, chiefly as substi- 
tutes when for any reason the clovers fail. 

Cowpeas and soy beans are by far the most important annual legumes. 
The former are especially adapted to the cotton belt, while the latter may be 
grown wherever corn is successfully raised. For northern latitudes, Canada 
field peas and winter vetch are hardy and promising. 

Of the non-legumes, the millets and sorghums rank first as annual 
hay and forage crops. 

COWPEAS 

The cowpea is a warm-weather crop, and is the best annual legume 
for the entire cotton belt. It is suited for the production of both hay and 
seed. It is seldom grown above 40 degrees north latitude, and in the 
northern limits of its production only early-maturing varieties should be 
used. There are more than sixty varieties of cowpeas, differing greatly in 
size, character of growth, color of seeds and time of maturity. Only a few 
of them are extensively grown. 

Varieties. — Whippoorwill is the best known and most extensively 
grown variety. It is of medium maturity and well adapted for making hay. 
It may be recognized by seed which has a mottled chocolate on a buff or 
reddish ground color. It makes a vigorous growth, quite erect and 
produces a large amount of vine. It can be handled readily by machinery. 

Iron is also a well-known variety, and is especially valuable because it 
is practically immune to root knot and wilt, diseases which cause much 
trouble with cowpeas in many parts of the cotton belt. 

New Era is one of the earliest of the cowpea varieties and is adapted 
to the southern portion of the corn belt. Its habit of growth is erect with 
few prostrate branches, thus making it easy to cut with machinery. It 
produces a heavy crop of small seed, characterized by innumerable minute 
blue specks on a gray ground color. Because of the small seed, less quan- 
tity is required for seeding. 

Unknown or Wonderful is one of the most vigorous and largest growing 
varieties and is late in maturing. It is quite erect and is handled readily 
by machinery, either for hay or grain production. The seed is large and of 
a light clay color. It is not adapted north pf North Carolina and Ten- 
nessee, except in a few localities at the lower altitudes. 

a44) 



ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 145 

Clay is the most variable of any of the varieties, and the name is given 
commercially to any cow'peas having buff-colored seeds, except the Iron. 
For this reason there are doutbless many varieties that masquerade under 
this name. This variety is vigorous, but of a trailing habit. It fruits 
sparingly and is consequently rather unpopular either for seed or hay 
purposes. It is especially valuable for jDasturing and for soil improvement. 

Groit is very similar to New Era, but makes a slightly larger growth 
and fruits more heavily. 

Black is a variety characterized by its large black seeds that do not 
jdecay rapidly after ripening, even after lying on the warm, moist earth. 




Field op Iron Cowpeas Planted in One-fifth-rod Rows and 
Cultivated Three Times, i 

It is especially adapted to the sanay, coastal plain soils of Virginia and North 
Carolina. It is also popular in the sugar-cane section of Louisiana. 

Time, Manner, Rate and Depth of Seeding. — Cowpeas should not be 
seeded until the soil is thoroughly warm. In most localities the date of 
seeding will be one or two weeks later than the best time for planting corn. 
The plants are tender and are injured by the slightest frost. 

In the cotton belt, the time of seeding should be regulated so that 
when harvested for hay, the proper stage of maturity will occur when the 
weather conditions are favorable for hay making. This will usually be 
sometime in September. 

The seed-bed for cowpeas should be prepared the same as for corn. 
The planting may be in drills or 'by broadcasting. When grown for seed 
it is generally best to plant in drills not less than thirty inches apart and 

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 318, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



146 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

cultivate the same as for corn. Good results, however, have been secured 
by seeding with the ordinary grain drill, which, of course, permits of no 
cultivation. When seed is costly, the saving of seed by drilling in rows 
thirty inches or more apart may offset the labor of cultivation. When 
grown chiefly for hay, broadcasting or drilling in rows close together is best. 

The rate of seeding varies from one to eight pecks i^er acre, depending 
on the manner of seeding, the character of seed and the purpose for which 
grown. When seeded with the wheat drill, with all of the holes open, one 
bushel of seed per acre will give good results for hay and still provide for 
fair yields of seed. Small seed requires less in planting than large, and less 
seed is required for seed production than when grown for forage. 

The depth of seeding will depend on the character and condition of the 
soil. It may vary from one to four inches. The looser the soil or the drier 
the seed-bed, the deeper should be the planting. The cowpea is really a 
bean and, like all beans, should not be planted too deeply. 

Cowpea seed usually costs from |2 to $3 per bushel. 

Seeding with Other Crops. — There are two principal advantages in 
seeding cowpeas with other crops, namely, the production of a better 
balanced ration when used as forage, and the increased facility with which 
the crop may be harvested and cured when supported by upright growing 
plants. 

The best crops to seed with cowpeas are corn, sorghum and millet. 
These are all similar to the cowpea in soil and climatic requirements. It 
is never wise to seed cowpeas with oats, as the one requires warm weather 
and the other cool weather for best results. 

The upright growing varieties of cowpeas may be grown wuth corn, 
preferably by planting both corn and peas in rows at the same time. By 
selecting the proper variety with reference to habit of growth and time of 
maturity, the co^v]^eas may be harvested at the same time with a corn 
harvester and used for making ensilage. 

In the southern portion of the corn belt and in the cotton belt cowpeas 
are frequently drilled between the corn rows after the last cultivation. The 
pods are gathered for the peas and the vines turned under for the benefit 
of the soil. When planted with corn, the cowpeas should be four or five 
inches apart in the row and the corn about tw(4ve inches apart. Best 
results are secured by using a cowpea attachment to the corn planter. 

When grown for hay, seeding with sorghum or millet gives best results. 
Sorghum is g(>nerally preferable to millet, because it has a somewhat 
longer growing season and makes a more palatable hay. Best results are 
secured by mixing the seed at the rate of two bushels of peas to one bushel 
of sorghum and seeding with a wheat drill at the rate of one and one-half 
bushels per acre. The large varieties of millet may be used with the early 
maturing varieties of cow]:)eas. 

Fertilizers, Tillage and Rotation. — Cowpeas respond to moderate 
applications of i)hosphorus and potash, but do not need nitrogen. 



ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 147 

When planted in drills sufficiently far apart to enable cultivation, 
cowpeas do best when given frequent, shallow and level cultivation. The 
earth should not be thrown on the foliage and tillage should cease as soon 
as the vines begin to run. 

Cowpeas are adapted to short rotations. They may frequently follow 
an early-maturing crop, such as wheat, oats and early potatoes, thus 
providing two crops from the land in one season. A rotation of wheat or 
oats and cowpeas is giving excellent results in portions of Tennessee, 
Arkansas and Missouri. 

Time and Method of Harvesting. — For hay purposes cowpeas should 
be cut when the first pods begin to ripen. A large growth of vines is some- 
what difficult to cure. The cut vines should lie in the swath for one day. 
They should then be placed in Avindrows where they may remain until 
fully cured. If weather conditions are not most favorable the vines, after 
remaining one or two days in the windrow, should be put into tall, narrow 
cocks and left to cure for a week or more. If rains threaten, canvas covers 
are advised. 

The leaves are the most palatable and nutritious portion of the forage, 
and every effort should be made to prevent their loss. When so dry that 
no moisture appears on the stems when tightly twisted in the hands, the 
hay may be put into stack or mow. 

Harvesting for seed is most cheaply done by machinery. The crop 
should be cut wth the mowing machine or self-rake reaper when half or 
more of the pods are ripe. When thoroughly dry they may be threshed with 
the ordinary threshing machine by removing the concaves and running the 
cyhnder at a low speed to prevent breaking the peas. Better results are 
secured by using a regular cowpea threshing machine. 

Feeding Value and Utilization. — Well-cured cowpea hay is superior 
to red clover and nearly equal to alfalfa hay. It is very high in digestible 
protein. Experiments relative to its feeding value show that one and one- 
quarter tons of chopped cowpea hay is equal to one ton of wheat bran. It 
is a satisfactory roughage for work stock and for beef and milk production. 

SOY BEANS 

Soy beans are adapted to the same soil and climatic conditions as corn. 
They are most important in the region lying between the best clover and 
cowpea regions. This is represented by Delaware, Maryland, West Vir- 
ginia, Virginia, Tennessee and the southern portion of the corn belt. They 
do well on soils too poor for good corn production, but are not so well 
adapted to poor soils as the cowpea. They stand drought well. 

Varieties. — There are several hundred varieties of soy beans, but only 
about fifteen are handled by seedsmen. The most important of these are 
described in the accompanying tabulation. The selection of a variety 
should be based upon time of maturity as related to the length of season 
for growth and the purpose for which grown. For seed production, good 



148 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



seed producers should be selected, and for hay and ensilage the leafy 
varieties are better. 

Time, Method, Rate and Depth of Seeding. — The seed-bed for soy 
beans should be prepared the same as for corn, and the seed may be sown 
broadcast or drilled, according to the purpose for which grown. On land 
that is not weedy the seed may be drilled solid with a grain drill. About 
one bushel of soy beans should be used per acre and they should be covered 
with one to two inches of soil. If land is weedy or if crop is grown for seed 
the corn planter may be used, the rows narrowed to three feet if possible 



Leading Varieties 


OF Soy Beans and their Characteristics. 


V.lMETT. 


Color 

OP 

Seed. 


Number 
OF SErns 
PER Lb. 


Time 

OP 

Maturity. 


Purpose 
TO Which 
Ad.^pted. 


H.4BIT3 OF Growth. 


Mammoth. 


Yellow. 


2100 


Late, 

120 to 150 
days. 


Koughage and 
grain for 
entire South. 


Large and bushy; 3 to 5 feet high. Will 
not mature seed north of Virginia and 
Kentucky. 


Hollybrook. 


Yellow. 


2100 


Medium, 
110 to 130 
days. 


Principally 
for seed. 
South. 


Three feet or less; coarse; poor for hay. 
Not so valuable as Manmioth. 


Haberlandt. 


Yellow. 


2400 


Medium-early, 
100 to 120 
days. 


Principally 
for seed. 
South. 


Stocky; seldom more than 30 inches tall. 


Medium Yellow 

or 
Mongol. 


Yellow, with 
pale hilum. 


3500 


Medium-early, 
100 to 120 
days. 


Forage. 


Erect; bu.shy; 2§ to 3 feet. 


Guelph or 

or 
Medium Green. 


Green. 


2 GOO 


Early, 
90 to 100 
days. 


Principally 
for seed. 
North. 


Coarse; not satisfactory for hay; stout and 
bushy; IJ to 2 feet. Seed shatters easily. 


Ito San. 


Yellow, with 
pale hilum. 


3200 


Early, 
90 to 110 
days. 


Ilay and seed. 
North. 


Bushy, with slender stems; 2 to 2^ feet. 
Much grown in North. 


Wilson. 


Black, 
yellow germ. 


2400 


Medium-early, 
100 to 120 
days. 


Hay and seed. 


Tall, slender; 3 to 4 feet. Excellent for 
hay. 


Peking. 


Black, 
yellow germ. 


C300 


Medium, 
110 to 130 
days. 


Hay and seed. 


Bushy with slender, leafy stems; 2J- to 3 
feet. Shatters very Uttle. 


Sable. 


Black. 






Hay and silage. 





and the seed drilled two inches apart in the row. This should require not 
more than one-half busliel per acre. The drill will accomplish the same 
result if every fifth drill hoe is used and the planting is made in rows for 
cultivation. 

Seeding should not take place until danger of frost is past. In the 
Central states it is safe to seed as late as July 1st, and further south seeding 
may take place later. Soy beans are adapted to seeding with corn to be 
used as ensilage, in which case varieties should be used that mature about 
the same time as the corn with which planted. This mixture is also well 
adapted for hogs and they may be turned into the field as soon as the corn 
reaches the roasting-car stage. 



ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 149 

Inoculation, Tillage and Fertilizers. — On land which has not before 
grown soy beans it is advisable to inoculate, either by soil transfer or by 
artificial cultures. When sown in rows, inoculated soil may be put into the 
fertilizing box and distributed with the beans at time of planting. This 
reduces the amount of soil required and gives perfect inoculation^ The 
precautions pertaining to inoculated soils and artificial cultures are the same 
as those given for alfalfa. 

The fertilizers for soy beans are the same as for cowpeas. 

When planted in rows far enough apart to permit of cultivation, 
cultivation should begin early and be sufficiently frequent to keep down all 
weeds and maintain a soil mulch. Soil should not be thrown on the plants 
when they are wet. Cultivation should cease when the plants come into 
bloom. 

Time and Method of Harvesting. — Beans grown for hay may be cut 
with the mowing machine and cured in the same manner as cowpeas. For 
this purpose it is best to cut when the leaves first begin to turn yellow and 
the best developed pods begin to ripen. When harvested for seed it is best 
to wait until the leaves have fallen and at least half of the pods have turned 
brown. If much value is attached to the straw, harvesting for seed may 
take place a little earlier. The method of threshing is the same as. that for 
cowpeas. 

When grown with corn for silage purposes, the beans should be a little 
more mature than when harvested for hay. 

Composition, Feeding Value and Utilization. — Well-cured soy bean 
hay is superior to clover hay and equal to alfalfa. It is more palatable than 
cowpea hay. Whether used for hay, grain, straw or ensilage, it is very 
valuable as a feed for nearly all kinds of livestock. It is especially valuable 
in all kinds of rations where high protein content is desired. The whole 
plant is high in protein and the beans are very high in both protein and fat. 

Vetches. — The hairy vetch is a winter annual and is important as a 
forage and soil imi^rovement crop in the United States and Canada. It 
belongs to the same family of plants as cowpeas and soy beans. It is best 
adapted to a cool, moist climate and succeeds best in the northern half of 
the United States and southern portion of Canada. Although it may be 
seeded any time during the summer, it does best when seeded in the late 
summer or autumn. It generally blossoms in May and matures seeds in 
June or July. 

It is valuable as a winter cover crop. The plant has a reclining habit. 
It is, therefore, best to seed rye and vetch together. About twenty-five 
pounds of vetch and one-half bushel of rye per acre makes a suitable mix- 
ture. The crop may be turned under early in the spring for the benefit of 
the soil, or pastured or cut green- for soiling purposes, or made into hay. 

Canada Field Peas.- — This term is used for field peas regardless of 
their variet5\ The plant is adapted to a cool, moist climate and succeeds 
best when seeded early in the spring. When used for having or soiling 



150 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



purposes, it is best to seed it with oats. The oats support the peas and 
faciUtate the harvesting of the crop. 

The amount of seed to use will vary with the size of the pea and the 
character of the soil. It will vary from two bushels per acre in case of small 




Hairy Vetch and Rye Gro"^t;ng Together.* 

seed to three and one-half bushels of the large seed. Wlien seeded with oats, 
two bushels of peas and one bushel of oats per acre is about the right pro- 
portion. 

On light soils peas may be sown broadcast and plowed under to a 
depth of three to four inches. Peas should not be buried so deeply on stiff 
clays. Best results will be secured by drilling the seed Avith a grain drill. 
Some of the peas will be broken in passing through the drill, but the loss 

'From Farmers' Bulletin 515, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 151 

will not be serious. When oats and peas are drilled together, it is best 
to drill the peas first, after which the oats may be drilled at right angles 
to the peas and not so deeply. Since the oats come up more promptly 
than the peas, some advocate deferring drilhng the oats until three or four 
days after drilling the peas. 

Harvesting. — Peas are ordinarily cut with a mowing machine when the 
first pods are full grown but not yet filled. At this time they make an 
excellent quality of hay. They are cured in the same manner as clover or 
timothy. Care should be taken to prevent loss of leaves by shattering 
and injurj^ from rain. 

Other Annual Legumes. — The Velvet Bean is a rank growing vine 
requiring seven to eight months to mature seeds, and is especially adapted 
as a cover crop in Florida and along the Gulf Coast. 

The Beggar Weed is also well adapted to the extreme South and is 
utilized both as forage and for cover crop purposes. It is adapted to light, 
sandy soils, and when seeded thickly, can be converted into hay or silage. 
It grows six to ten feet high and is relished by all kinds of livestock. 

Sorghum. — The non-saccharine sorghums were discussed under the 
head of Kaffir corn. The sweet sorghums, of which there are a number of 
varieties, are utilized for forage purposes as well as for the manufacture of 
molasses. The sweet sorghums are not so drought resistant as the non- 
saccharine sorghums, and a small acreage may be advantageously grown on 
many livestock farms east of the semi-arid region. 

The season of growth is similar to that of corn and the plant demands 
the same kind of soil and methods of treatment. When used for hay, it 
should be seeded thickly either by broadcasting or by drilling with a wheat 
drill, using 70 to 100 pounds of seed per acre. 

The Early Amber is considered the best variety for general purposes. 

Sorghum should be cut for hay when the seeds turn black. It may be 
cut with a mowing machine the same as any hay crop. Best results are 
secured by putting it into large shocks and allowing it to remain until 
thoroughly cured. If cut too early or stacked before the weather becomes 
quite cool, it is likely to sour and make a poor quality of hay. 

Millet. — There are three common varieties of millet: German, Hun- 
garian and common millet. The common millet is drought resistant and 
grows well on rather poor soil. It matures in from two to three months. 
It makes a good quality of hay and can be fed with less loss than the coarser 
varieties. 

The German variety is the largest and latest maturing variety. It 
will outyield common millet, but is not so drought resistant. 

Hungarian millet is about midway between the common and German 
millet as regards time of maturity, drought resistance and yield. Its tend- 
ency to produce a volunteer growth has brought it somewhat into disfavor. 

The millets may be seeded any time after the soil is thoroughly warm. 
In latitude 40 degrees north, German millet should be seeded the last week 

19 



152 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



in May or the first week in June. Hungarian millet may be seeded two 
or three weeks later, while common millet will frequently produce a crop 
when seeded as late as the middle of July. 

Millet is used chiefly as a catch crop for hay. It is well adapted for 
this purpose and may be substituted where a catch of clover or timothy 
fails. It is also excellent to fill in where areas of corn have failed. 

The preparation of the seed-bed should begin as early in the spring as 
conditions will permit. This gives an opportunity to rid the soil of weeds 
by occasional harrowing prior to seeding. Millet is seeded broadcast at 
the rate of one peck per acre when grown for seed, and one-half bushel per 




Millet Makes an Excellent Catch Crop and is Profitable Either for Hay 
Purposes or for Seed Production. 

acre when grown for hay. Three pecks of seed is advised by some for hay. 
This results in smaller plants with a finer quality of hay. 

Where extensively grown for seed, millet should be harvested with the 
self-binder when the seed is in the stiff dough stage. The after-treatment is 
similar to that for wheat and oats. The best quality of hay is secured by 
cutting before the seeds begin to ripen. The seeds act as a diuretic to ani- 
mals and it is not safe to feed too much of it to horses. Hay that is to be 
used for horses should be harvested before seeds form. 

Rape. — Rape belongs to the same family of plants as cabbage and 
turnips. There are two varieties, annual and biennial. The latter bears 
seed in the second year. The best known variety of biennial is the Dwarf 
Essex. This gives best results for soiling and pasture purposes. Cattle 
and sheep are fond of rape. It is especially fine for hog pasture. 



ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 



153 





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154 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



This plant is best adapted to cool, moist climates and does best in the 
Northern states and Canada. South of latitude 38 degrees it is best to sow 
it in the fall. This allows it to make most of its growth during the cooler 
part of the year. North of this, rape should be seeded in the spring so that 
it may make most of its growth before hot weather. 

Three to six pounds of seed per acre are required. It may be either 
broadcasted or seeded with a drill on a well prepared seed-bed. 

Rape is usually ready to pasture in six or eight weeks after seeding. 
If not pastured too closely, it continues to grow until freezing weather. 




Making Hogs of Themselves.* 
Rape makes an excellent late fall and early spring pasture for growing hogs. 

Care must be taken in pasturing cattle and sheep in rape. They should be 
allowed on the rape only a short period at a time, until they become accus- 
tomed to it. Very bad cases of bloat may result if this caution is unheeded. 
The preceding tabulation taken from "Wallace's Farmer" summarizes 
the requirements for catch crops when used for pasture and hay. It gives 
the approximate requirements for average corn-belt conditions, but is 
subject to modifications as regards time of seeding and amount of seed, 
depending on climatic conditions. 

' Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College. 



ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS 155 

REFERENCES 

"Soiling Crops and the Silo." Shaw. 

"Forage Crops for the South." Tracy. 

"Forage Crops." Voorhees. 

"Forage Plants and Their Culture." Piper. 

Michigan Expt. Station Circular 27. "Hairy Vetch." 

Mississippi Expt. Station Bulletin 172. "Forage Crops." 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

458. "Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage." 

515. "Vetches." 

529. "Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States." 

599. "Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific Northwest. 

605. "Soudan Grass as a Forage Crop." 

677. "Growing Hay in the South for Market." 

686. "Uses of Sorghum Grain." 

690. "The Field Pea as a Forage Crop." 



CHAPTER 12 

Annual Legumes, Grown Principally for Seeds 

The annual legumes most grown in North America for seed are the 
white or navy bean, the common pea and the peanut. They are used 
extensively as food for man. In addition to these, cowpeas and soy beans 
are grown for seed, some of which is used for human food, some for stock 
food, but still more for seeding purposes. 

The production of crimson clover, vetch and castor bean for their seed 
is of minor importance in North America. 

Field Bean. — Is extensively grown under field conditions for the pro- 
duction of dried beans. These become the baked beans of New England 
fame. According to the census of 1910 the production in tlie United States 
was 11,250,000 bushels of 60 pounds from 803,000 acres. Michigan, Cali- 
fornia and New York lead in bean production. During the same year 
Canada grew about 1,000,000 bushels from 50,000 acres. 

Field beans do best in a cool, moist climate. They are not adapted to 
conditions south of 40 degrees north latitude. Field beans are adapted to 
loamy soils of a calcareous nature, but may be grown fairly well on clay 
loams and silt loams when well supplied with organic matter. The under- 
drainage must be good and cultural methods such as will produce a fine, 
mellow seed-bed. 

Time, Rate, Manner and Depth of Seeding.—Beans are tender plants 
and seeding, therefore, should be deferred until danger from frost is past. 
This makes it convenient to plant them immediately after planting corn. 

They give best results when planted in rows far enough apart to permit 
horse cultivation. The beans may be drilled or planted in hills. Drilling 
usually gives best results, distributing the seed from three to six inches 
apart in the row. With rows thirty inches apart about one-half bushel of 
seed per acre will be required. 

Great care must be taken not to plant too dceplj'. The habit of growth 
is such that the plant cannot reach the surface if planted deeply. An inch 
and one-half to two inches is the maximum depth on any except sandy 
soils. On sandy soils they may be three inches deep. 

The beans should be thoroughly and frequently cultivated during 
their early stages of growth to destroy weeds and conserve soil moisture. 
They should not be cultivated when dew is on the plants. This precaution 
must be taken to guard against certain diseases, the spores of which maj' 
be in the soil. Disturbing the plants while they are wet tends to scatter 
the spores and spread the disease. 

(156) 



ANNUAL LEGUMES 



157 



Harvesting. — The rij^e beans are harvested with a bean harvester. 
This implement cuts two rows at a time, leaving the vines in a single 
windrow. If the vines are practically dead when harvested they may be 
placed at once in small piles, and later built into large cocks around poles 
five feet or more in height. 

Threshing and Cleaning. — Beans growTi commercially are threshed 
with a machine especially adapted to the purpose. It is operated in a 
manner similar to the ordinary threshing machine. If only a few beans 




Hakvesting Field Beans with a Harvester.* 



are grown an ordinary threshing machine may be used. All except four 
teeth should be removed from the concaves and the speed of the machine 
should be such as not to break the beans. Most satisfactory results will be 
secured by having all the beans uniformly dry. 

Beans fresh from the thresher generally contain fragments of straw, 
stones and particles of earth which must be removed before being placed 
upon the market. This calls for the use of a special cleaning machine, 
which removes most of the foreign matter. After this the remaining 
broken and discolored seeds must be removed by hand, 



■ Courtesy of U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin S9. 



158 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Yield. — Variations in weights of measured bushels range from fifty- 
seven to sixty-five pounds. The standard weight is sixty pounds. Beans 
yield all the way from five to thirty-five bushels per acre. There is usually 
no profit in a ten-bushel crop. According to the last census the average 
yield per acre was fourteen bushels. 

Field Peas. — The Canada field peas, described in the preceding chap- 
ter, are extensively grown in Canada and a few of the Northern sta,tes for 
the dried peas. These are adapted to a wide range of uses as feed for 
hvestock. They also furnish the supply of seed for all localities where the 
crop is grown for forage purposes. 

Peas are very high in protein and are especially adapted as feed for 
young stock and for the production of milk and butter. When given with 
oats and bran to cows in milk, they may constitute from one-third to one- 
half of the concentrates fed. 

When harvested for seed, the vines are cut with a mowing machine 
to which special guards are attached for lifting them from the ground. 
There is also a device attached to the rear of the cutting bar, which leaves 
the vines in a swath far enough from the standing peas to enable the team 
and machine to work without tramping the peas. It is customary to cut 
when two-thirds of the pods are yellow. 

When dry the peas should be stacked under cover or threshed immedi- 
ately with a pea huller or with an ordinary threshing machine in the same 
manner as described for field beans. 

The legal weight of field peas is sixty pounds to the bushel. They are 
quite prolific and under favorable conditions will yield forty bushels to the 
acre. At Guelph, Ontario, eight varieties during eleven years gave an 
average yield of 31.5 bushels per acre. Four varieties at Ottawa averaged 
34.4 bushels for five years, while six varieties grown for five years in three 
other localities averaged 40, 41 and 41.2 bushels respectively per acre. 

The most suitable varieties to grow depend somewhat on soil and 
climatic conditions. Three good all-around varieties are Prussian Green, 
Canadian Beauty and White Marrowfat. 

Cowpeas. — The seed of cowpeas has been very little used as feed, 
because the price has been too high to justify its use in this way. The 
introduction of suitable harvesting and threshing machinery should make it 
possible to produce grain of the more prolific varieties at prices that' will 
put it in reach for feeding purposes. At present practically alT of 
cowpea seed is used for seeding purposes, the price ranging from .|2 to 
$4 per bushel. 

The dried shelled peas contain 26 per cent of protein, 1.5 per cent of 
fat and 63 per cent of nitrogen free extract. A comparatively low rainfall 
is favorable to seed production. Continuous wet weather causes a develop- 
ment of vines at the expense of seed. At one of the southern experiment 
stations during a series of five years, the yield of peas with a yearly rainfall 
of 62 inches was only 12 bushels per acre, whereas, with only 22 inches of 



ANNUAL LEGUMES 



159 



rainfall, the yield was 28 bushels per acre. The yield of hay in both cases 
was practically the same. 

The methods of seeding and harvesting for seed production are treated 
m the foregoing chapter. 

Soy Beans. — The growing of soy beans for grain to be used as feed is 
profitable if the yield is sixteen bushels or more per acre. The seed is very 
rich in oil and protein and occupies the same place in concentrates as 
cottonseed meal and oil meal. The seed should be ground before being fed. 
Some of the varieties with highest fat content are being utilized for the 
manufacture of oil. This is used as a substitute for linseed oil in the manu- 
facture of paints. The best varieties under proper cultivation yield from 




'•4*»"V^>^ 



Soy Beans, Bradford County, Pennsylvania. i 

This annual legume is excellent for both forage and seed production, 
grown nearly as far north as dent corn. 



May be 



thirty to forty bushels of seed to the acre. Hollybrook, Mammoth and 
Haberlandt are three especially good varieties for seed production. Tall 
varieties that bear pods some distance from the ground are most desirable 
and most easily harvested. 

The methods for harvesting and threshing are given in the preceding 
chapter. The threshed beans should be thoroughly dried when stored. 
Otherwise they are likely to heat and spoil. They should be carefully 
watched when first stored and at once spread out to dry if there are signs of 
heating. 

Soy bean seed is especially exempt from weevils. 

' Courtesy of Department of Agricultural Extension, Pennsylvania State College. 



160 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Castor Bean. — There are two classes of castor beans, one a perennial, 
bushy plant with large seeds; the other a small seeded variety which yields 
oil of superior quality. The plant grows within a wide range of climate, 
from the tropics to the north temperate zone. In Florida it is a perennial 
plant growing from fifteen to thirty feet high. Further north, it becomes 
an annual, matures seed in a short season and grows only four or five feet 
high. 

The castor bean thrives in sandy soils and its culture is simple. The 
seeds germinate wdth difficulty and it is advised to place them in hot water 
twenty-four hours before planting. 

It is customary to plant them in hills two inches deep, eight to ten 
beans to a hill. They are afterwards thinned to one or two plants per hill. 
The rows should be five or six feet aj^art and the plants from two to three 
feet apart in the North, and from five to six feet apart in the South, where 

the plant grows more 
luxuriantly. They 
require about the same 
tillage as corn. 

Planting should be 
done as early in the 
sjiring as possible, but 
nmst escape injury 
from frost. 

As soon as the pods 
begin to open the fruit 
branches should be re- 
moved. This process 
must be repeated at 
least once a week as 
The branches are spread out to dry on the floor of a 




Crimson Clover, a Good Winter Cover Crop Where 
Winters are Mild. 

Well suited to the lighter soils in the Coastal Plain Region 
south of Philadel]ihia. 



soon as seeds ripen 
suitable building. 

In the United States most of the castor beans are produced in Kansas, 
Oklahoma, California, Oregon and Wisconsin. 

The chief use of the beans is for the manufacture of castor oil. This 
oil is one of the best lubricants for machinery and is used in the manufac- 
ture of many articles. 

Vetch. — Common vetch and hairy vetch are the two most important 
varieties of vetches. Common vetch seed is produced in large quantities 
in the United States only in parts of Oregon. Hairy vetch has a wider 
range of growth, but is grown mostly for forage, most of the seed being 
imported from Russia. Both of these varieties seed freely wherever grown 
and the prevailing high price of the seed ($5 to 18 per bushel) should induce 
farmers to grow more of it for seed purposes. Yields ranging from twenty 
to twenty-five bushels per acre have been reported for common vetch, the 
average estimated yield being ten bushels. Hairy vetch is somewhat less 



ANNUAL LEGUMES 



16] 



prolific, but yields ranging from two and one-half to twenty-one bushels 
per acre have been reported by different experiment stations, the average 
yield being seven and one-half bushels. 

The method of harvesting for seed is similar to that of cowpeas. It 
is threshed with the ordinary threshing machine. 

Crimson Clover. — The chief demand for seed of crimson clover is for 
seeding purposes. The seed is larger than that of red clover, one pound 
containing 125,000 to 150,000. The weight is sixty pounds to the bushel. 
It yields better than red clover, averaging about six bushels to the acre. 
Most of the seed is produced in Delaware and nearby states. 

Crimson clover should be harvested for seed as soon as perfectly ripe. 
The seeds shatter badly. For this reason it should be cut promptly, 
preferably in the morning or evening when the plants are damp. The 
mowing machine with a clover buncher or the self-rake reaper are best 
adapted for harvesting the crop. If the clover becomes wet the seeds 
sprout, causing serious loss. For this reason threshing should promptly 
follow the harvest. 

Fresh seed is shiny and of a pinkish color. Seed two years old loses 
its bright color, becoming dark brown. It is then worthless for seeding 
purposes. 

The cultural methods for crimson clover are given in the preceding 
chapter. 

PEANUTS 

During the last decade there has been a great increase in the production 
and use of peanuts in the United States. Their annual commercial value 
in the United States, according to the last census, was $18,272,000. The 
states leading in production are North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia and 
Florida, three-fourths of the marketable nuts being produced in these 
states. They are valued for forage as well as for a money crop, having a 
feeding value equal to that of clover hay. Peanut products, such as peanut 
butter, oil and meal, also have a market value. The peanut kernel has a 
high percentage of fat. After the oil has been extracted the meal is noted 
for its high percentage of protein. Being nitrogen gathering like other 
legumes, they are valued as a soil improvement crop. 

In parts of the South where corn is not a successful crop, its place is 
being taken by the peanut, the entire plant being fed. It also enters use- 
fully into the cropping system, on the cotton and tobacco lands of the 
Southern states. In parts of the South where the cotton-boll weevil is 
troublesome, peanuts are more advantageously cultivated than cotton. 

Soil and Climatic Conditions. — A light, loamy, sandy soil is best suited 
to peanuts. A dark soil will produce the forage crop satisfactorily, but is 
apt to discolor the nuts for market purposes. Heavier soils may be used 
for forage purposes, but if grown for nuts, a loose soil is necessary, owing 
to the fact that the nuts must burrow into the soil in order to develop. 




A Peanut Plant. ^ 



1 Farmers' Bulletin 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

162 



ANNUAL LEGUMES 163 



A compact soil does not facilitate this very necessary process. The peanut 
is more susceptible to frost than the bean plant. It requires a long season 
without frost in order to develop nuts. The small Spanish peanuts require 
about 115 days to mature and the large varieties need a still longer period. 
For this reason they are most successfully grown in the frost-free regions, 
such as the South Atlantic and Gulf states and westward into California. 
When grown for forage, however, a wider range of climate is possible, 
peanuts being successfully grown as far north as Maryland and Delaware. 

Fertilizers and Lime Required. — Soils that are adapted to peanuts 
will not require much commercial fertilizer, although the peanut responds 
readily to a moderate use of it. On river bottom lands no fertilizer will be 
needed, but in hillside regions applications of fertilizers and lime are advis- 
able. Practically the same fertilizer that is suitable for potatoes is suitable 
for peanuts. The peanut responds well to the application of manure, but 
the manure should be applied to the crop preceding the peanuts. For this 
reason, peanui.s should follow a cultivated crop if possible. This also aids 
materially in freeing the peanuts from weeds. Too much manure causes a 
heavy growth of tops to the detriment of the pods. If the forage is fed and 
returned to the land in the form of manure, the peanut is not an exhaustive 
crop, but if the entire crop is removed it soon robs the soil of fertility. 

Peanuts also require an abundance of lime in the soil. Soils that show 
any indications of sourness should receive from 600 to 1000 pounds of lime 
(preferably fresh burned) to the acre. This treatment should be given at 
least every five years. The sorrel weed is an indication of a soUi soil. 

The fertilizer may be distributed in the row to be planted and thor- 
oughly mixed with the soil. Lime should not be applied at the same time, 
but some time previous, either during the fall before or just after plowing. 

Time, Rate, Depth and Manner of Planting. — Peanuts should be 
planted as soon as the ground is thoroughly warm and all danger from 
frost is over. This insures quick germination. The larger varieties must 
be planted somewhat earlier than the Spanish variety, as more time is 
needed to mature. 

The soil is prepared much the same as that for potatoes. The peanuts 
are planted in furrows about three feet apart. The nuts may be dropped 
by hand or a one-horse peanut planter may be used. The running varieties 
should be planted from twelve to sixteen inches apart in the row but the 
bunch varieties somewhat closer, from nine to twelve inches apart. The 
richer the soil, the greater should be the distance between plants, in order 
to allow for growth. 

Only one seed in a place is necessary, but in order to insure a good yield, 
two seeds are preferable. Two pecks of shelled peanuts are generally 
sufficient to plant an acre, while two bushels of the Spanish peanut in the 
pod are required. 

Peanuts should be covered from three-quarters of an inch to two inches 
deep, depending upon character of soil. Light, sandy soils require a deeper 



164 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

planting, while on heavy soils from three-quarters to one and one-quarter 
inches is sufficient. 

Seed Selection and Preparation. — Selecting a good grade of seed is 
just as important in peanut culture as it is with corn or any other crop. 
Seed should be selected only from mature plants and from those producing 
the largest number of pods. It must be properly cured and kept thoroughly 
dry during the winter. It is not safe to use seed older than the preceding 
crop. 

Seed from the large pod varieties should always be shelled before 
planting. / Shelled seed is surer and more rapid of germination than seed in 
the pod, and insures a better stand. Machine-planted seed must be shelled. 

The small or Spanish varieties may be planted in the pod with but 
little disadvantage. Some growers make a practice of soaking the pods for 
a few hours before planting in order to soften them and hasten germination. 
Soaked seed must be planted at once, however, or it becomes useless. 
Shelled seed should not be soaked. 

Preparing the large varieties for seed entails much work, as they must 
be shelled by hand. The smaller varieties, however, are usually shelled by 
machinery, although some loss is experienced by this process. 

Varieties. — Peanuts are divided into large-podded and small-podded 
varieties, according to their size. The Virginia bunch and the Virginia 
runner are the two most grown large varieties. These varieties are the 
most used when roasted and sold for human consumption. They have 
about the same weight per bushel. 

The Spanish peanut is much used for forage and for shelled purposes. 
Its range of growi.h is wider than that of the Virginia variety. 

Other varieties are the African, the Tennessee Red and the Valencia. 
They are all small varieties. 

Cultivation, Harvesting and Curing. — Peanuts should be cultivated 
in much the same manner as beans, corn or similar crops. Cultivation 
should begin as soon as the crop is up and continue until the vines spread 
over the ground. The soil should be kept loose and free from weeds. Pea- 
nut pods have the peculiar habit of burrowing in the ground when they 
begin to form. For this reason the dirt should be worked towards the vines 
in the last cultivation and the vines should not be disturbed after the 
process of burrowing begins. 

The same implements may be used as for cultivating corn and beans. 
A one-horse weeder is the general form of cultivator used. 

Harvesting should occur just before frost, as frost will injure the forage 
as well as the peanuts. Peanuts may be plowed from the ground with a 
common turning plow, but the use of a potato-digging machine is a much 
better method. The initial expense of such a machine is about $75, but it 
lasts many years and does the work much more efficiently than it can be 
done otherwise. If dug by plow the soil must be shaken from the roots by 
hand, whereas the machine shakes off the soil as it digs. 



ANNUAL LEGUMES 



165 



A few hours after harvesting the peanuts should be stacked about a 
pole. These poles should be driven firmly into the ground and pieces 
nailed at right angles to them just above the ground in order to keep the 
vines from the ground as much as possible. The stacks should be small 
and conical and stacked as loosely as possible so that air will pass through. 
It is not advisable to store peanuts in the barn until thoroughly cured. 
Then the forage part may be stored after the nuts are picked. 

The nuts should not be picked from the vines until they are thoroughly 
dry and solid, else they will shrivel and become unfit for market purposes. 




Hakvesting and Curing Peanuts.* 



On the other hand, picking should not be delayed too late in the season on 
account of ravages from crows and mice. 

Hand-picked peanuts command the highest price, but owing to the 
dusty, irksome labor involved, picking machines are coming into general 
favor. There are two kinds on the market: one is a cylinder type used 
mostly for Spanish peanuts; the other machine drags the vines over a 
horizontal wire mesh, thus removing the nuts without breaking them. 

Peanuts must be kept continually dry or they become discolored. 
After picking they are usually covered with dust and kept in a dry, well- 
ventilated place until stored in bags ready for market. 

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Fanners' Bulletin 431. 



166 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Preparing for Market. — Threshed peanuts contain much trash, neces- 
sitating a thorough cleaning before marketing. This can be done on a 
small scale by the grower, but if large quantities are involved, the process 
is more economically done in a cleaning factory, which is equipped with all 
necessary fanning and grading machinery. 

Yields. — An average yield of peanuts is about thirty-four bushels an 
acre, although it is quite possible on fertile soil and by expert methods 
to increase this to sixty bushels an acre, with from one to two tons of 
forage. Peanut forage is worth from $8 to $10 per ton. Sixty bushels of 
nuts are worth from $40 to $60, according to quality. Estimating upon 
this basis, allowing an expenditure of from $12 to $25 per acre to grow the 
crop, the grower would realize a profit of from $36 to $45 per acre. 
This is a conservative estimate and, all conditions being favorable, might 
be much larger. 

REFERENCES 
"The Peanut." Jones. 
"The Peanut and Its Culture." Roper. 
"Peas and Pea Culture." Sevey. 

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 2,32. "Field Beans." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

315. "Legume Inoculation." 

318. "Cowpcas." 

372. "Soy Beans." 

431. "Peanuts." 

561. "Bean Growing in Western States." 

579. "Utilization of Crim.son Clover." 

646. "Crimson Clover Seed Production," 



CHAPTER 13 

Roots and Tubers for Forage 

In the United States roots and tubers are grown principally as vege- 
tables or for sugar production, but in Canada they are quite extensively 
grown for forage purposes. In such root crops as the beet, turnip, parsnip 
and carrot, the edible part is really an enlargement of the upper portion of 
the root and the lower portion of the stem merged together. Roots, such 
as cassava and chufa, are enlargements of the roots. 

According to the last census Canada produced nearly 200,000 acres of 
root crops, while those growai in the United States for forage purposes 





hsss 

'266 


/ '03S 

179 i 

3733 


1 2099 
23 


^ 

y 
1 




173 


\ 

31 
23 


48 


8 


9 


10 


^.. 



Root Crops, 1909-1910. Figures = Acres.^ 



aggregated only about 15,000 acres. Mangels, rutabagas, turnips, beets, 
carrots and cabbage are best adapted to cool, moist climates. Of these the 
rutabaga and turnip may be successfully grown further south than the 
others. The accompanying map gives the acreage of root crops in the 
United States and Canada by states and provinces according to the latest 
census figures. 

Relation to Other Crops. — The economy in growing root crops for 
forage purposes depends chiefly on whether or not other succulent crops 
suited to feeding livestock can be more cheaply produced. It also depends 
on the relative yields of the different crops. 



1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. 
20 



From " Forage Plants and their Culture," by Piper. 

(167) 



168 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



The longer the winter period, the greater the need for succulent food 
for livestock during the stabling period. For this reason there is more 
need of such foods in the northern part of the United States and in Canada 
than farther south where the season for plant growth is longer. Many of 
the root crops are adapted to a short growing season where corn cannot be 
successfully grown. 

Numerous experiments on the relative cost of producing corn and roots 
show that corn is the cheaper source of feed wherever it can be successfully 



1^ 


1 

m 




3 


\ti^. 


IffPS-S • 




S^C 






J- : : .^'■'^^^^^^^^^i^^^ss^,^^-^:^ 


— -^ 


^"■^^ 







A Load of Mangels, Note Size and Character of Roots.^ 

grown. The root crops require more labor than corn in culture, harvesting 
and feeding. Less of the work can be done by labor-saving machinery. 
It is for this reason chiefly that they are the more expensive source of suc- 
culent food. Roots have the advantage in that they may be grown in 
small quantities for small nmnbers of livestock when it would not be 
practicable to have a silo. They also fit well into crop rotations and the 
tillage required by them leaves the soil in excellent condition for crops that 
follow. 

Utilization and Feeding Value. — The root crops are best utilized for 
dairy cattle, especially during the winter period. The various roots differ 
considerably in their percentage of dry matter and feeding value. Sugar 

1 Courtesy of Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Mino. From "Field Crops," by Wilson and 
Warburton. 



ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE 169 

beets rank first, as they have about 20 per cent of dry matter, three-quarters 
of which is sugar. Mangels, rutabagas and turnips frequently have no 
more than 10 to 12 per cent of dry matter, not more than one-half of which 
is sugar. 

Some of the flat-topped turhips that grow principally on the surface 
of the ground maj^ be grown for pasturage and are readily eaten by sheep. 

The dry matter in roots is slightly lower in feeding value, pound for 
pound, than that in cereals. It is about equal in digestibility to the dry 
matter in cereals. 

The yield of some of the more important root crops, as grown at a 
number of experiment stations, is as follows: mangels, average yield in 
tons per acre during five years in five localities, 31; rutabagas, same locali- 
ties and same number of years, 26.5 tons per acre; carrots, same localities 
and same number of years, 23.6 tons per acre; sugar beets, same localities, 
average five years in two of them and three years in other three, 20.6 
tons per acre; turnips, three localities average of five years, 21.3 tons 
per acre. 

Sugar-Beets. — While sugar-beets have a high feeding value they are 
not extensively grown as forage because the yield is generally much less 
than can be secured from mangels and rutabagas. The by-products of the 
sugar factories in the form of beet pulp are quite extensively used as 
roughage for livestock. Beet pulp is a food that can be easily stored and 
kept, and instead of losing its value it really improves with age. The 
pulp may l^e simply thrown on the ground and preserved for three or 
four years without deterioration except in the outer part. For cultural 
methods of beets see the article on "Sugar Crops." 

Mangels. — Mangels differ quite materially from sugar-beets in form, 
color and size. Sugar-beets grow mostly in the ground, are tapering in 
form, and both the skin and flesh are white. IMangels average four times as 
large, are more cylindrical in form, and a considerable portion of the root 
grows above ground. The flesh of the mangel is usually reddish or yellow, 
while the skin may be white, red, golden, purplish or even black. Mangels 
are planted in rows twenty-eight to thirty-six inches apart. The rate of 
seeding ranges from six to eight pounds of seed per acre. The seed should 
be covered about one inch deep and as soon as the plants are well established 
they should be thinned by use of a hoe to little groups of plants at intervals 
of twelve inches. These should be thinned later by hand to one plant to 
each place. They should be cultivated to destroy weeds and maintain a 
good soil mulch. They are generally harvested by plowing a furrow on one 
side of the row, and are pulled by hand. On account of their large size they 
require much cutting before being fed. They may be stored in root cellars 
or in pits, and call for a low, uniform temperature and fair ventilation during 
the storage period. 

Turnips and Rutabagas. — There are a great variety of turnips. Ruta- 
bagas or Swedes are but a few of the large growing varieties that are espe- 



170 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



cially adapted for forage purposes because of the large yields they 
give. From two to three pounds of turnip seed and four to five pounds of 
rutabaga seed per acre are required. The seed may be either drilled or 
broadcasted, although in case of rutabages drilling is decidedly preferable. 
The preparation of the ground, planting and method of tillage is very simi- 
lar to that given mangels. As turnips make their growth in two or three 
months, they may be seeded late in the summer and yet mature before 
frost. Rutabagas require more time for maturity and should be sown in 
May or June. 

Turnips do not keep well and should be fed in the fall and early winter. 
Rutabagas, on the other hand, keep through the winter without difficulty. 
The methods of storage are similar to those for rutabages. 

Carrots. — This crop is less extensively used for forage purposes, chiefly 
because it yields less abundantly than rutabagas and mangels. It makes 



UiTA/T/LATOR 




Cross Section of an Easily Constructed Pit for Roots. ^ 



an excellent quality of feed and calls for about the same soil conditions and 
cultvn-al methods as the other root crops. The roots are much smaller and 
consequently there should be more of them in a given area. From four to 
six pounds of seed per acre are required. It should be drilled in rows, and 
the ])lants should ultimately stand two or three inches apart in the row. 

Parsnip. — This crop requires a rich, fertile soil, and demands the same 
cultural methods as the carrot. The roots of the parsnip may be dug late 
in the fall and stored or allowed to remain where grown and dug as required 
for use. Whether they are allowed to remain in the field will be determined 
largely by winter conditions and the possibilities of digging them in the 
Avinter time. When used as human food, the freezing of the roots improves 
their flavor. 

Cabbage. — While this crop is grown chiefly for human consumption, 
in some sections of the country it is extensively grown for forage purposes. 
The usual method of storing cabbage is to dig a trench about eighteen inches 

1 From Farmnrs* Bulletin 465, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE 171 

deep and three feet wide in which the cabbage is set with the heads close 
togethec'and the roots bedded in soil. As cold weather approaches they are 
coverea with straw and a few inches of earth. Slight freezing does not 
injure them, but they should not be subjected to alternate freezing and 
thawing. They should be well ventilated while in storage. Cabbage 
makes a good roughage for dairy cows and young stock. 

Kale. — Thousand-Headad kale is the variety best adapted for forage 
purposes because of its large, rank growth and heavy yield. It somewhat 
resembles cabbage and makes a succulent forage which can be fed from 
October until April in regions where the winter is mild. It is best fed fresh 
or allowed to wilt, but should not be cut more than four or five days before 
feeding; neither should it be fed while frozen. 

The methods of growing are similar to those for cabbage, the plants 
being grown in a seed-bed and transplanted in the field early in the spring. 

Cabbage and any of the root crops that tend to give a peculiar taste 
to milk should always be fed soon after the milking period and never for 
several hours just prior to it. This precaution in feeding is said to obviate 
the disagreeable flavor which is frequently imparted to the milk. 

Artichokes. — This crop, of which there are several varieties, belongs 
to the sunflower family, and both the tops and tubers are relished by 
livestock. They are cultivated much after the manner of potatoes, although 
planted somewhat farther apart. Yields of 200 to 500 bushels of tubers 
per acre have been reported. 

Artichokes are valuable as forage, chiefly for hogs, which may be 
turned into the fields and allowed to harvest the crop themselves. The 
tubers keep in the ground all winter and usually enough of them are left 
by the hogs to produce a new crop for next year. 

Cassava. — This plant is a native of the tropics and is adapted to Florida 
and the Gulf Coast portion of the states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. 
It is a large growing, bushy plant attaining a height of four to ten feet and 
produces horizontal, fleshy roots or tubers three to five feet long and from 
one to two and one-half inches in diameter. While it will grow on quite 
,a variety of soils, it can be economically produced only on loose, sandy soils 
which will enable the easy harvesting of the roots. On fertile soils and with 
good cultural methods, yields of five to ten tons per acre of roots are 
reported. The roots are very high in starch and sugar content and make 
an excellent food for all kinds of livestock. The crop is ciuite extensively 
used in the manufacture of starch. 

Cassava is propagated by means of portions of the roots or stems which 
are stored in the dry during the winter. The roots or seed canes are cut 
into pieces of the desired length and planted in the spring after danger of 
frost is past. They are usually planted four feet apart each way and cov- 
ered with a few inches of moist earth. 

Chufa. — This is a sedge-like plant with creeping root stocks which 
produce great numbers of edible tubers. These are small, sweet and 



172 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

frequently used as human food or pasture for hogs. The yield varies greatly 
ranging from 50 to 300 bushels of tubers per acre. The plant is propagated 
by planting the tubers in the spring in rows sufficiently far apart to permit 
cultivation. The rate of planting is about the same as for potatoes. 

Taro. — Thi plant, commonly grown for its edible roots in the tropics, 
is more familiar to persons in the United States as seen in the large-leaved, 
ornamental plant sometimes called "elephant's ear." The tubers are 
similar to potatoes in composition. It requires a long season for its growth 
and is adapted only to Florida and the lower portions of the Gulf states. 
The bulbs are from six to twelve inches long and three to four inches in 
diameter. It is grown chiefly for human food, but in semi-tropical districts 
may be used as a forage for livestock. 

Youtia. — This plant closely resembles the taro and is similar in its 
requirements and uses. The jdeld of tubers under favorable conditions 
may be ten to fifteen tons per acre. They are harvested by pulling, 
supplemented by the use of the hoe. No doubt machinery such as is used 
for the harvesting of sugar-beets could be utilized for the harvesting of this 
crop and the one preceding.' 

REFERENCES 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
309. "Root Crops." Pages 7 to 15. 
465. "Methods of Storing Root Crops." 



CHAPTER 14 

The Potato 

By Alva Agee 
Director, Agricultural Extension, Rutgers College, N. J. 

The potato is one of the world's most important products for human 
food. The United States have been producing between 350,000,000 and 
400,000,000 bushels, and Canada between 70,000,000 and 85,000,000 bushels 
annually. Adaptability to this crop gives high value to land near good 
markets, and good transportation facihties have made the crop profitable 




The Potato Crop.^ 

in sections of the country that must ship their products long distances. 
The Southern states, growing their crop in the cool months of the spring, 
supply Northern markets during the summer, and in the fall scores of 
millions of bushels are sent southward from the Northern states. The crop 
is important not only for the reason that it produces a large amount of 
human food per acre, but on account of the reward it offers to the grower's 
skill. The limit to production per acre is unknown, but it is a conservative 
statement that the present average yield in this country could be doubled. 

» From Farmera' Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

V(173) 



]74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

The Soil. — The potato is a tuber developing below the surface of the 
ground and displacing soil particles as it grows. Therefore, a mellow soil is 
essential. The best potato lands are naturally loose, but somewhat heavy 
soils have been brought into profitable production by the free use of organic 
matter from sods and cover crops. A good potato soil is retentive of 
moisture, and rotted organic matter in it serves as the best insurance 
against drought. Some light, sandy soils of the seaboard states are put 
into productive condition by means of cover crops and manure which give 
them body and excellent physical condition. Soils naturally too compact 
for the potato may be made loose, friable and retentive of moisture by the 
same means. 

Crop Rotation. — The history of pot.nto production in other countries 
as well as our own teaches clearly that this crop should be grown in rota- 
tion with others and that when the crop rotation is shorter than four years 
there is great danger of ultimate failure. The practice of growing potatoes 
year after year on the same land, using a winter cover crop, or of using a 
rotation of two j'^ears only, niq,y prevail for a number of years in a region 
i:)eculiarly adapted to the crop, but it is only a matter of time until yields 
will be badly cut by disease and lack of vegetable matter in the soil. One 
excellent crop rotation is clover, corn, potatoes and grain, followed by 
clover. The manure is put on the field for corn, and both it and the sod 
are thoroughly rotted for the potato the following year. Another rotation 
of some reputation is clover, potatoes and wheat. The clover sod rots 
more readily than a grass sod and feeds the potato and at the same time 
keeps the soil mellow. A fresh-turned grass sod does not favor this crop. 
When it is necessary to follow grass with potatoes the sod should be broken 
in the fall, and if there is danger of undue leaching, a winter cover crop of 
rye or wheat should be grown. 

Soil Preparation. — A deep soil holds moisture better than a shallow 
one, and our more productive potato lands have been made and are kept 
deep by proper plowing. A shallow soil should be deepened gradually, 
and the best part of the sod never should be thrown into the bottom of the 
furrow. A breaking-plow having a short, straight mold-board is to be 
preferred for all land that is at all deficient in humus, as it is essential that 
some organic matter be in the surfac9 soil. The time of plowing is a local 
question. Wherever leaching is not to be feared and early planting is 
practiced, fall plowing is advised. When land is broken in the fall or very 
early in the spring, it is less subject to summer drought than late-plowed 
ground. We should bear in mind all the time that a supply of moisture is a 
big consideration and in the preparation of the ground that should be 
kept chiefly in view. The use of a heavily weighted, sharp, disk harrow on 
sod land before it is broken does much to hasten decay after the plowing 
and to insure prime physical condition. It is easy to do harm by tramping 
plowed land with horses in the spring, and disking before plowing reduces 
the amount of required preparation after the plowing. ^ 



THE POTATO 175 



The Seed. — The potato thrives in a relatively cold climate and loses 
vigor when grown during midsummer in warm latitudes. The best seed is 
obtained from our northernmost states, grown in midsummer, or from more 
southern states when grown in the cool months of autumn. As a rule, the 
northern seed is preferred, partly because it is in abundant supply. 

Successful growers prefer potatoes of marketable size for planting. 
The tubers are enlarged underground stems, and their vitality may be 
measured by that of the vines which produce them. A small potato, known 
as a second, may have been set late by a vine of strong vitality which 
produced also a big crop of merchantable tubers. In that case the small 
potato makes fairly good seed, and would be just as desirable as a section 
of a large potato if it did not put out any more sprouts than the cut portion 
of a large tuber. On the other hand, many seconds are small because the 
vines producing them lacked in vitality. Experience has taught that 
growers depending upon seconds soon have a large percentage of plants 
that lack full productive power. Potato yields in the warmer latitudes of 
the Northern states are kept low by the use of home-grown seed which 
necessarily has had vitaHty impaired. 

The amount of seed per acre depends somewhat upon variety, but 
relatively heavy seeding is profitable. The grower wants sufficient foliage 
to cover and shade the soil thoroughly, and ordinarily, that requires the 
use of thirteen or fourteen bushels of seed per acre. The seed piece should 
be a block of potato sufficiently large to average two eyes to the piece. The 
size of the seed piece is important in insuring a good stand, and the cutting 
should be related more to size of the piece than to number of eyes. In some 
instances there will be only one bud which may produce two or three good 
stalks, and in other cases a seed piece of right size may have three eyes. 
Close cutting and any skimping of the amount of seed result in loss under 
ordinary conditions, however successful they may be in a very fine and 
fertile soil having the right amount of moisture immediately'' after planting. 

Fertilization. — Large areas of sandy loams are planted with potatoes 
because they have right physical condition and partly because they mature 
a crop early in the season. Sandy soils are badly deficient in potash, and it 
has come about that most growers think of the potato as a plant requiring 
unusually heavy applications of potash. Manufacturers of fertilizers have 
fostered this idea, but the results of careful experiments have shoAvn within 
recent years that phosphoric acid should be the controlling element in the 
potato fertilizer, just as it is in the fertilizer for corn and most other staple 
crops. In normal soils of great natural strength no commercial fertilizer 
may be used, but when need first develops, phosphoric acid is the require- 
ment. This occurs even where clover and stable manure are freely used. 
Commercial growers, as a rule, make no use of stable manure direct to 
potatoes, as it furnishes ideal conditions for the development of disease, 
and especially of the scab. In the case of naturally fertile land the manure 
applied for com and the legumes in the rotation may furnish the most of 




The Condition op Seed Potatoes Depends on Charactee of Storage. 

1 — Stored in cool place. 2 — Stored in warm place, tubers 
shrunken and vitality impaired. 



176 



THE POTATO 



177 



the needed nitrogen, and the decay of the vegetable matter may free all of 
the potash required, but we now have relatively small areas in which 
phosphorus does not add materially to crop yields. As potato production 
continues, a need of nitrogen develops, and as has been said, potash is a 
requirement for most sandy soils. A lack of fertihty maj^ be met by use of 
a fertilizer containing 3 per cent of nitrogen, 10 per cent of phosphoric acid 
and 5 or 6 per cent potash excepting, naturally, areas where the percentage 
of nitrogen must be increased. The amount of fertilizer used per acre 
varies greatl}'". Some growers in the seaboard states apply one ton of a 
high-grade complete fertilizer per acre, and many growers on naturally 




A Potato Planter.^ 



fertile soil in the Central states use none at all. It is a common practice 
to apply all of the fertilizer in the row, and when the amount is in excess 
of 1000 pounds per acre, there is danger of injury to the plants as they start 
growth 

Lime is not applied to land immediately before potatoes are planted, 
as it favors the development of potato scab. Acid soils are more free from 
this disease than alkaline ones, but clover demands lime and is needed in a 
rotation with potatoes. The best practice is to use finely pulverized 
limestone rather than burned lime and to make the appHcation immediately 
after the potato crop in the rotation. 

The Planting. — As the potato thrives best in cold latitudes the planting 
should be made as early as possible in the spring in the Southern states and 

* From Farmera' Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



178 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

the southern tier of the Northern states. The only exception is in the case 
of midsummer planting with the aim of securing a crop in the fall. Farther 
north the planting may be later in the spring, although the tendency in 
recent years has been away from June planting. 

The depth of planting depends upon the character of the soil and the 
variety. Where an early crop is wanted, the planting is shallow, but for a 
main crop in loose soils the depth should be at least three inches below the 
dead level of the surface. 

A planter does more satisfactory work than can be done by hand, 
dropping the seed in a more direct line. The width between rows may vary 
from thirty to thirty-five inches and the distance between the seed pieces 
in the row should be sufficient to require about fourteen bushels of seed per 
acre. This is a surer rule than any fixed nmnber of inches, as much depends 
upon the cutting. 

Cultivation. — ^A soil that is sufficiently retentive of moisture for the 
potato usually inclines to become more compact than is desired. The 
preparation of the soil and the planting compacts some of the ground 
beneath the surface. A few days after the planting is finished it is good 
practice to give a very deep and close cultivation, the shovels being guided 
by the furrows made in covering. Later the weeder or harrow should be 
used to level the ground and kill all weeds so that the potato plants will 
come up in a fresh, clean soil. Close and deep tillage should be given when 
all the plants are above ground, and later the cultivation should be more 
shallow so that the roots of the plants will not be unduly disturbed. Level 
culture enables the grower to keep the maximum amount of moisture in 
the soil, but dependence upon mechanical diggers has led practical growers 
to ridge the rows and, when the growing is on a large scale, this is the only 
practical method of controlling grass and weeds. Cultivation should 
continue until the vines fill the middles, and the last cultivation should be 
given by a light one-horse cultivator that will slip under fallen vines. The 
early cultivation should keep the soil- loose 'and later cultivation should 
keep the surface wejl mulched with loose earth and should prevent any 
growth of weeds. 

Diseases. — The number of virulent potato diseases is increasing in 
this country, and the grower should study the latest bulletins from his state 
experiment station. He will be informed regarding the formalin treatment 
for the seed before planting, that gives control of some diseases. All 
potato seed should be given this treatnient, which consists of soaking the 
seed for two hours in a solution of formaldehyde made by diluting one pint 
of 40 per cent formaldehyde in 30 gallons of water. This should be done 
before the seed is cut and under no circumstances should scabby seed be 
planted without this treatment. 

Close examination of the seed pieces when cutting is an aid. Mechani- 
cal cutters are not advised and partly for this reason. All tubers showing 
discoloration of any sort should be:«,ej&Gted;.". ;. i 



THE POTATO 179 



Spraying with Bordeaux mixture increases the yield of potatoes 
through stimulation, and is profitable, except in case of very highly fer- 
tilized soil, even when no blight prevails. The early blight which is 
prevalent in the southern tier of our Northern states is not well controlled 
by spraying, but in cooler latitudes where the late blight prevails spraying 
should never be omitted. Directions for making the Bordeaux mixture and 
applying it are furnished by the experiment stations. The only point to be 
emphasized here is that the spraying should be thoroughly done, insuring a 
perfect coating of the plants, and that is possible only by use of strong pres- 
sure and two nozzles to the row when the plants have reached some size. 

Insect Pests. — For white grubs and wire-worms, which may render a 
potato crop unmarketable, there is no remedy. There is no soil treatment 
that will kill these pests. The grower should know the life history of these 
insects and plan his rotation as far as possible for their control. Examina- 
tion will show whether a soil is infested or not at planting time, and pota- 
toes should not be planted where serious injury is sure to come. 

The potato beetle is easily controlled by use of arsenical poisons and 
these should be on the plants when the larvae of the potato beetle are hatch- 
ing. Two pounds of Paris green or four pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty 
gallons of Bordeaux will prevent injury by this insect. 

The flea-beetle does great injury not only by impairing the vitality of 
the plant, but by opening the way for disease attacks. Control is very 
difficult. The Bordeaux mixture repels for twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours and to that extent is a help. 

Harvesting the Crop. — An early crop of potatoes when dug for market 
in hot weather must have careful handling. All cut and bruised tubers 
should be discarded. If there is reason for not marketing promptly, the 
crop is safer in the ground than out of it, although excessive wet weather 
may cause rot. Later varieties, dug usually in the fall when nights are 
cool, will bear placing in large bulk. 

The best diggers elevate the soil of the row with the tubers and, having 
sifted the soil back, drop the tubers on top of the fresh surface. Such 
diggers are relatively expensive and small growers use low-priced diggers 
that do fairly good work. When good seed is planted in highly fertilized soil 
the percentage of seconds may be so small that little grading is required, 
but it never pays to send to market any tubers below merchantable grade. 

REFERENCES 

"The Potato." Eraser. 

"Potatoes for Profit." Van Ornam. 

"The Potato." Grubb and Gilford. 

"Potatoes: How to Grow and Show Them." Pink. 

South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 155. "Selection of Seed Potatoes." 

Farmers' Bulletins, XJ. S. Dept. of Ap-iculture: 

365. "Farm Management in Northern Potato' Sections." 
3S6. "Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms of the West." 
407. "The Potato as a Truck Crop." 
533. "Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them." 



CHAPTER 15 

Sugar Crops (Cane, Beet and Maple Sugar, and Sorghum) 

By W. H. Darst 

Assistant Professor of Agrono^mj, The Pen7isylvania State College 

The world's sugar supply is manufactured from two plants, namely, 
the sugar-beet {Beta vulgaris) and the sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum). 
The amount of sugar secured from the maple tree is insignificant, 

SUGAR-BEETS 

The development of the sugar-beet industry dates back to March 18, 
1811, when the French Emperor dictated a note to his Minister of the 
Interior, instructing him to see that 90,000 acres of beets were planted. 
He then appropriated 1,000,000 francs with which to establish schools of 
instruction, and to be given in bonuses to those who erected factories. 
Even though sugar-beet was an unknown crop, the farmers were compelled 
to glow them. At the end of two years France was producing 7,700,000 
pounds of sugar. By 1836 the production of sugar in France amounted to 
40,000 tons. At this time Germany observed that sugar-beets in France 
had revolutionized French agriculture. By growing beets in the rotation 
the yield of all the cereals was increased to an even greater extent than where 
turnips were grown, as in England. Up to this time Germany had not been 
able to induce her farmers to grow beets of their own accord. Germany 
then adopted the French plan of governmental aid to establish the industry. 
Other European countries soon followed the same plan, with the result that 
today one-half of the world's supply of sugar is derived from European 
sugar-beets.' 

The following table gives the total world's production of beet and cane 
sugar compared: 



World's Production. 


Short Tona. 


1911-12. 


1912-13. 


1913-14. 


Cane sugar 


10,253,000 
7,072,000 


10,699,000 
8,365,000 

19,064,000 


11,118,000 


Beet sugar . 


9,765,000 






Total production 


17,325,000 


20,883,000 







(180) 



SUGAR CROPS 



181 



The countries leading in the production of both beet and cane sugar 
in 1914 were as follows: 



Beet Sugar. 



Country. 



Germany 

Russia 

Austria-Hungary 

France 

United States . . . 
Italy 



Short Tons. 



2,886,000 

2,031,000 

1,858,000 

861,000 

733,000 

337,000 



Cane Sugar. 



Country. 



Cuba 

British India 

Java 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

United States (Louisiana and 
Texas) 



Short Tons. 



2,909,000 

2,534,000 

1,591,000 

612,000 

364,000 

300,000 



The development of the sugar-beet industry in the United States is of 
comparatively recent date. It was not until 190G that the production of 



'AV. Showing How Germany Has Increased the Yield of Wheat.Rye, Barley and Oata ^v. 
Aofp ^y Planting Fields to Sugar Beets and Other Hoed Crops,One Year in Four. /er 



PER CnNT 
INCREASE 

1879—1909 




1879 I8S0 isai 189: \mm m less mi mt \m mt m \m U93 1194 m \m mi \m m \m m\ \m \m m 1905 1906 i9e; 1908 1909 
COMBINED 1909 HARVEST OF f united states = 88.944,000 acres. i.94;,o<5,ooo bushels. 

WHEAT.RYE BARLEY AND OATS \germany = 34,378 S36 acres. 1,373,000,000 bushels. 

Agricultural Progress in the United States and Germany. 



sugar from beets exceeded that from sugar-cane. At present the produc- 
tion of beet sugar has more than doubled that of cane sugar in the United 
States. (See above table.) 



1S2 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



The leading states in the production of beet sugar, in the order of their 

production, are; Colorado, California, Michigan, Utah, Idaho and Ohio. 

In the past and even at present, manj^ farmers think beet culture 

injures the soil. This, with the high cost of extracting the sugar from the 

beet, has made progress in beet culture in this country verj^ slow. 

Results obtained in Germany and other European countries, when 
beets are introduced into the rotation, suggest that the farmers of the 
United States, having the proper conditions for production, would do well 
to introduce them into their rotations. European farmers do not find the 
beet crop in itself highly profitable, but the extra cultivation and fertiliza- 
tion necessary to grow them, has greatly increased the yields of all other 
crops, in the rotation, especially the cereals. 

For the most part the profit is made indirectly 
from the beet crop. The preceding chart from the 
loose-leaf service of the United States Sugar Manu- 
facturers' Association compares the average yields 
of cereals in Germany, a beet-raising country, with 
those of the same crops in the United States, where 
very few beets or roots are grown. 

Adaptation. — The soil and climatic conditions 
are very im|)ortant factors in growing beets with 
high sugar content. They are not as widely 
adapted as other farm crops commonly grown in 
this country. Plenty of moisture and sunshine, 
particularly during early growth, are essential to 
the production of Ix-ets with high sugar content. 
Ideal conditions are found most commonly in the 
irrigated districts of the Rocky Mountains and the 
Pacific Coast, although many Northern states 
have favorable conditions for sugar-beet growing. 
Sugar-beets require deep, well-drained soils 




Sug.ui-Beet.1 



They do best on 
rich loam or sandy loam and are not adapted to clays, muck or peaty 
soils. 

Preparation of Land. — The root of the sugar-beet grows entirely or 
mostly underground, the smaller roots often reaching a depth of four to 
six feet. For this reason, a deep soil and a deeply prepared seed-bed are 
necessary. Beet ground should be plowed eight to twelve inches deep, and 
where possible a subsoiler may be used with good results. Fall plowing is 
advised where conditions will permit. It is very important that the seed- 
bed be well prepared. The land should be worked often enough to secure 
a fine, firm, moist seed-bed. It is necessary to obtain a soil free from weeds 
or weed-seeds. Beets grow slowly at first, and if weeds are allowed to start, 
considerable hand labor will be required to eradicate them. Beets should 
never be grown in continuous culture. The rotation will depend on the 

' Courtesy of California Agricultural College. 



SUGAR CROPS 1S3 



crops common to the region where grown. A three, four or five-year rota- 
tion, including a legmne crop, should be used when growing beets. 

Fertilization. — Barnyard manure and high-grade fertilizer are used with 
profit on beets. The manure should be well rotted when applied, so as to 
lessen the chances of weed-seed. High-grade fertilizers, selected to meet 
the needs of the soil, should be used. 

In European countries beets are fertilized very heavily. This produces 
a large tonnage of beets and the residual effect of the fertilizer is taken up 
by the crops that follow. 

Seeding and Cultivation. — The beet plant produces seed in balls or 
capsules containing one to five seeds. It is impossible, therefore, to regu- 
late the rate of seeding so as to get a satisfactory distribution of plants in 
the row. The seed is drilled rather thickly, and when the plants are large 
enough, they are thinned to the required distance in the row. The seed 
is ordinarily sown with a beet drill, which sows several rows at a time. The 
distance between rows varies from twenty to twenty-eight inches. To 
insure a full stand of plants, about twenty pounds of seed are sown to the 
acre. In irrigated sections, beets are often sown in double rows one foot 
apart and twenty-four to twenty-eight inches between each pair of rows. 
Beet-seed should be sown early in May or after the ground warms up. 
Cultivation should begin as soon as the rows can be followed and continued 
at intervals of six to ten days, until the tops nearly meet between the rows. 
A special beet cultivator is used that will cultivate several rows at a time. 

The thinning of the plants should be done about the time the fifth 
leaf is formed. Thinning is done by first blocking or bunching with a hoe. 
This consists of cutting out the plants in the row, leaving small bunches 
eight to ten inches apart. After blocking, further thinning is necessary, 
leaving but one plant in each bunch. The blocking and thinning, hoeing, 
pulling and topping of the beets are done by hand labor. On the larger beet 
farms this work is generally done by foreigners under contract. 

Harvesting. — Beets should be harvested before danger of frost in the 
fall; if not worked up immediately, the roots should be protected from 
freezing. Harvesting consists of lifting, puUing, topping, piling and hauling 
away the roots. Lifting is done by a special implement that loosens the 
roots in the soil. The pulling, topping and piling are done by hand. In 
topping, the leaves are sometimes simply twisted off. A much better 
method of topping, from the standpoint of the manufacturer, is to remove 
the tops with a sharp knife at the lowest leaf scar on the root. The part 
of the beet that grows above ground is not desirable. The sugar content 
of this part is low, and there is a high percentage of minerals that may 
crj^stallize the sugar at the WTong time in the process of manufacture. 

Seed Production. — The sugar-beet is a biennial, producing seed the 
second year. Almost all of the seed used in this country is imported. When 
grown for seed, only beets with high sugar content should be saved. This 
selection is based on the percentage of sugar as determined in a small sample 

21 



184 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



taken out of the side of the root with a trier. The hole made by the trier 
is filled with charcoal or clay to prevent rotting. The selected beets are 
stored over winter in sand, in a dry cellar or pit. The next spring these 
roots are planted in rows to produce seed. From three to five plants will 
produce a pound of seed. 

Manufacture of Beet Sugar. — At the factory the beets are washed in 
sluiceways, then sliced into long strips called ''cosettes " The juice is 




A Good Stand and Vigorous Growth of Sugar-Beets.^ 



removed by applying hot water to the sliced beets, leaving a product known 
as beet pulp. This juice is purified by adding small quantities of lime. The 
lime combines with the foreign matter and is filtered out. The purified 
juice is then placed in vacuum pans and boiled until the sugar crystallizes. 
The sugar is removed by placing the product in a large centrifugal machine, 
lined \Adth fine sieves. The whirling motion drives off the molasses through 
the sieves, and the sugar is retained. The sugar is then dried and is ready 

lU. S, Dept. of Agriculture, P. I. Bulletin 238. 



SUGAR CROPS 185 



for market. The molasses, to which is added a httle fresh juice, is again 
boiled in vacuum pans until the remaining sugar crystallizes. The sugar 
is separated out as before, the product being known as second sugar. The 
molasses, after the second boiling, is sold as stock feed. 

By-Products of Beet Farming. — Beet tops left on the field after harvest- 
ing may be cured as forage to be fed to livestock. If not fed, they should 
be spread evenly over the ground and plowed under as a fertilizer. 

Beet pulp, a by-product of the sugar factory, is an excellent substitute 
for corn silage. Wet beet pulp contains about 90 per cent of water and 10 
per cent of solids, which compares favorably with mangels as a feed. Many 
factories dry the pulp. Dried pulp makes a better feed, in that it remains 
in better condition for a longer time and is worth about eight times as much 
as the wet pulp. 

Beet molasses, another by-product, is not palatable when fed alone; 
but when mixed with dried pulp, chopped hay or straw, has considerable 
feeding value. 

CANE SUGAR 

Sugar-cane has been cultivated for many centuries in the tropical and 
semi-tropical portions of the world. According to the best authorities, 
sugar-cane appears to have originated in India. From there it was taken 
to China and other parts of the Old World, where it has been extensively 
cultivated from time immemorial. After the discovery of the New World 
sugar-cane w^as introduced first in San Domingo, then into Mexico, Marti- 
nique, Guadaloupe, Cuba, the Guianas and the warmer states of South 
America. 

The State of Louisiana produces almost all of the cane sugar produced 
in the United States. Texas and Florida produce some. Sugar-cane was 
first introduced into Louisiana in 1751, but sugar was not manufactured 
from it until about 1792. 

Description and Mode of Reproduction. — Sugar-cane is a perennial 
grass, growing from eight to fifteen feet tall. The stalks are thick and 
heavy, being filled with a sweet, juicy pith. The flowers are borne in 
silky-like panicles. Seed is never formed in this country, and is not 
abundantly produced in Egypt or India. Cane in its wild and native 
state reproduces vegetatively more often than by seeds. 

The stalk of cane is divided into joints or nodes and internodes. At 
each joint is a bud which under proper conditions develops into a stalk. 
Around each bud, on the stalk, are semi-transparent dots which develop 
into roots that feed the bud when planted. 

Soils. — Sugar-cane requires a large quantity of water during the grow- 
ing season; consequently, it grows best on soils well supplied with humus 
and having a high water-holding capacity. Well-drained alluvial bottoms 
and muck soils are very good soils for sugar-cane. The more fertile clay 
uplands produce cane higher in sugar, but do not supply the required amount 
of water for large yields. 



186 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Sugar-cane is adapted to tropical or semi-tropical latitudes, the two 
predominating essentials to growth being warmth and moisture. A mean 
annual temperature of 70° F. and a minimum annual rainfall of about 60 
inches are essential to the successful growth of sugar-cane. One of the 
difficulties in growing sugar-cans is in the control of water. In Louisiana 
as much as five to seven inches of water may fall during one rain. The 
problem, then, is to get rid of the excess water before it damages the crop. 
Good tile drainage is necessary on most of these sugar plantations. If for 
any reasons, tile drainage is not possible, it is then necessary to depend on 
surface drainage. 

There are times when irrigation is necessary. The ideal sugar-cane 
plantation should be equipped with underdrainage as well as irrigation 
ditches. In Louisiana, scarcely a year passes that irrigation water cannot 
be used at some time. Irrigation may be used to help prepare the seed-bed, 
as well as to supply water when needed for the growing crop. 

Varieties of Cane. — Many varieties of cultivated cane are grown 
in this country. These have been and are being introduced from 
various parts of the world. The Louisiana Agricultural Experiment 
Station has arranged the varieties into groups and then under classes as 
follows : 

Class one — white, green and yellow canes. 

Class two — striped canes. 

Class three — solid colors other than class one. 

In the Louisiana Bulletin No. 129, the variety known as D.74, a light- 
colored cane, is recommended very highly. It is very high in sugar and 
outyields by 20 per cent the green or ribbon canes. 

Rotation and Preparation of the Land. — It is not desirable to grow 
sugar-cane continuously. A common rotation is two years cane and one of 
corn and cowpeas. The cowpeas are sown in the corn to be plowed down 
for the benefit of the cane crop which follows. The plowing is generally 
done in the fall of the year. The land must be plowed very deep, the 
deeper the better, up to twenty to twenty-four inches. Traction plow^s are 
quite generally used, as the work is too heavy for horses. On small plan- 
tations, heavy mules and disk plows are used to break the soil. 

After the land is plowed it is bedded with a two-horse mold-board plow. 
This gives surface drainage between each two rows of cane. When ready 
to plant, the rows are opened with a double mold-board plow. Two or 
more running stalks are deposited in this furrow and covered by a disk 
cultivator. 

It has been demonstrated in Louisiana that fall planting gives best 
results when winter freezing is not too severe and when the seed-bed is 
properly prepared and drained. Planting may take place any time from 
the middle of September to the first of April. 

Fertilizers. — Cane is a rank-growing plant and demands the liberal 
use of fertilizers. Since most of the potash and phosphoric acid removed 



SUGAR CROPS 187 



by the crop is returned in the ash and the waste from sugar factories, as 
explained later, nitrogen is the only element of fertility that need be pur- 
chased in large quantities. The humus of the soil must be kept up by the 
application of barnyard manure and by plowing down legumes. When 
nitrogen is used as a fertilizer it should be applied in the organic form. The 
nitrogen in cottonseed meal becomes available more slowly than in nitrate 
of soda, hence this carrier is better adapted to the long-growing season 
required for sugar-cane. 

Cultivation. — Sugar-cane is cultivated frequently to keep down weeds 
and to insure rapid growth by conserving the moisture. Considerable 
hand hoeing is necessary as the cane rows can be cultivated only one way. 
The disk is a favorable type of cultivator; however, the tooth or shovel 
types are also used. 

Harvesting. — The sugar in the plant increases up to a certain stage of 
ripeness. While the maximum amount of sugar can be determined only 
by chemical means, the grower learns to determine the proper stage quite 
accurately by the appearance of the stalks and inflorescence or flower 
cluster. For economy of production, it is desirable to continue the grinding 
of cane over as long a period as possible. The season may be extended by 
planting at different times and by using varieties that vary in time of matu- 
rity on different types of soil. 

In Louisiana the harvesting begins the first of November. The cane 
is cut by hand and is a very slow process. The plant is first stripped with 
the back of the cane knife, then topped and cut close to the ground. The 
stalks are thrown in piles for loading. As the canes begin to lose sugar 
rapidly in twenty-four hours after cutting, they are usually hauled immedi- 
ately to the mill. 

Cane Sugar Manufacture. — At the factory the stalks are first shredded. 
The juice is then pressed out by running this shredded material through 
three sets of heavy steel rollers. After passing through the first set of 
rollers, the pressed material is sprayed with hot juice, then passed through 
the second set of rollers. In turn, this material is sprayed with hot water 
and again pressed. In this way from 90 to 95 per cent of the juice is 
removed. The pressed material is used as fuel and is converted into the 
heat and power necessary to operate the mill. 

The juice is heated and purified by adding milk of lime. The 
lime combines with the impurities and is filtered out. The purified 
juice is then concentrated by boiling in vacuum pans and is finally 
crystallized. 

The principal by-products of the sugar-cane factories are the impurities 
combined with lime, the different grades of syrup and molasses and the 
ashes from the pressed cane. 

Since the impurities taken out in combination with lime contain a 
large part of the phosphorus and potash removed by the crop, this product 
with the ashes is returned to the soil as a fertilizer. 




o 



Q 



Books, 

188 



Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. Prom V.-G. Fertiliaer Crop 



SUGAR CROPS 189 



MAPLE SUGAR 

The making of maple sugar, like every other farming industry, has 
changed greatly within the last fifty years. In this country maple sugar 
has become more and more a luxury, and less a necessity, owing to the 
low price of cane and beet sugar. 

The maple sugar production of the United States during the year 1909 
was 14,060,206 pounds, valued at $1,380,492. The following states lead 
in the production of maple sugar : Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania and 
New Hampshire. 

Sugar is made from the saps of several varieties of maple trees. The 
two most important are the Rock Maple {Acer saccharinum) and the Red 
Maple {Acer rubrum). Ideal sugar weather occurs in the late winter or 
early spring when the days are warm and sunny and the nights cold and 
frosty. This weather starts a rapid flow of sap in the tree. The tree is 
then tapped and the sap collected in covered buckets made for the purpose. 
The sap as it comes from the tree is colorless and contains on the average 
about three per cent of sugar. 

Sugar Making. — In the process of sugar making, the sap is first boiled 
dowTi in evaporators; then boiled to a much greater density in concen- 
trating pans. 

In making maple syrup the sap is boiled until the temperature reaches 
about 219° F. ; in making sugar, the temperature must reach 234° to 245° F. 
Tha boiling of maple sap for syruj^ must be done over a hot fire. Boiling 
over is prevented by adding cream or skim milk from time to time. While 
the thermometer is used to determine the amount of boiling necessary, 
an experienced individual can tell simply by the way the syrup boils. 

The broAvn syrupy fluid is then cooled, during which it must be stirred 
vigorously until graining begins. The soft mass is then poured into molds. 

SORGHUM 

Sugar from sorghum has never been manufactured on a commercial 
scale, although it has been made in small quantities and in an experimental 
way. The difficulty in making sugar from sorghum lies chiefly in the fact 
that there is only a very short period in the fife of the plant when it is 
possible to crystallize sugar from its juices. The period is so short and the 
possibihties of detecting the right period are so difficult that it makes 
sugar making from this plant impracticable. 

The plant is quite extensively used, however, in the manufacture of 
molasses or syrup. It is best known as sorghum molasses, and is used for 
cooking purposes more extensively than for the table. 

The requirements and cultural methods for sorghum are given in the 
chapter on "Annual Forage Crops." When used for molasses the crop 
should be planted in drills and given thorough cultivation. The plants 
should be about six inches apart in the row. 

There axe many varieties of sorghum, but the Early Amber is the only 



]90 SUCCESSFULFARMING 

early variety given any particular preference. There is much uncertainty 
as to the quality of molasses that wdll be secured, and it does not seem to 
depend either upon the variety used or the method of making. Experiments 
indicate that there are frequently impurities in the juice which interfere 
with the making of a good quality of molasses. 

In general, the best quality of molasses is secured in the northern 
region of production and in seasons of comparatively low rainfall and 
abundant sunshine. It is essential that the canes be harvested at the right 
stage of maturity and that there be uniformity in maturity. Carelessness 
in the selection of seed and the manner of planting often give rise to canes 
varying greatl}' in maturity at harvest time. It is very important to have 
all the canes about the same height and of the same maturity. This facili- 
tates the removal of the seed heads and is more likely to produce good 
molasses. 

REFERENCES 
"American Sugar Industry." Myrick. 
"Cane and Beet Sugar Industry." Martineau. 

Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 136. "Production of Sugar Beet Seed." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 238. "Sugar Beets: Preventable Losses in Culture." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 260. "American Beet 

Sugar Industry." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

516. "Sugar Beet Growing Under Humid Conditions." 

567. "Sugar Beet Growing Under Irrigation." 

568. "Production of Maple S>Tup and Sugar." 



CHAPTER 16 
Cotton Production 

By Prof. E. F. Cauthen 
Associate in Agriculture, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 

Cotton, the second most valuable crop produced in the United States 
and the first most valuable export, is grown in that part of the country 
lying south of 36 degrees north latitude and east of western Texas. This 
section is known as the " Cotton Belt." The climate and soil are pecuharly 
adapted to its growth. The warm, moist spring and hot, humid summer 
favor the growth of the plant and its fruit; the dry, warm autumn matures 
and opens the bolls and permits the picking of the cotton. 

Species. — The genus (Gossypium hirsutwn) includes the common 
long and short staple varieties grown in the United States. The length 
of lint varies from one-half inch to one and a half inches. 

Sea Island cotton {Gossypium barbadense) grows on the narrow Sea 
Islands along the coast of South Carolina and in some of the interior 
counties of south Georgia and north-central Florida. It makes the long- 
est, finest and most valuable of all cotton fibers. Sea Island cotton may 
be distinguished from the ordinary upland cotton by: (1) its long, slender 
boUs bearing usually three locks, (2) deeply lobed leaves, (3) yellowish 
flowers with a red spot on each petal, and (4) many black seeds almost 
necked, with long slender, silky fiber. Its fiber may be two inches long, 
and is separated from the seed by the roller-gin, which does not cut the 
fiber from the seed, but pushes the se^d out of the fiber. This cotton is 
used in the manufacture of fine fabric and laces and in the finer grades of 
spool cotton thread. - , - ■> . • . 

Characteristics of the Plant. — Cotton is a ^tap-root, plant. In loose 
soils this root penetrates to considerable depth, even into the subsoil. 
When the subsoil is hard, poorly drained or near the surface, the tap-root 
is forced aside and the plant becomes dwarfed. Mo^t lateral roots branch 
from the tap-root near the surface and feed shallow, hence the need' of 
shallow cultivation. 

On fertile soil cotton may grow five or six feet high. From its nodes 
spring two kinds of branches, vegetative and fruit-bearing. The lowest 
branches or vegetative ones are often called base limbs; they may bear 
short fruit-limbs. As the top of the plant is approached, the branches 
shorten, giving it a conical shape. The bolls of cotton are borne only on 
fruit-limbs. 

Some varieties, like Russell and Triumph, produce bolls from one and 

(191) 



192 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



one-half to two inches in diameter, and require from 60 to 70 to make one 
pound of seed cotton; others, like King and Toole, having smaller bolls, 
require from 100 to 120 to make a pound. 

Some varieties are much more easily picked than others. If the parts 
of the boll open wide, the locks of cotton are easily picked out by hand or 
blown out by wind or beaten out by rain; but if the parts of the boll do 
not open wide, the locks may cling to the burs and suffer less damage from 
wind and rain. 

Cotton fiber varies in length from three-quarters of an inch in the 
upland varieties to two inches in Sea Island cotton, and may be likened to a 

long, slender, flattened tube 
with two-thirds of its length 
slightly curled. It is this 
curled condition of a fiber that 
makes it valuable, for with- 
out it the fiber could not ba 
spun into thread. 

Seed. — The number of 
seed in a boll varies from 
twenty-five to fifty. The size 
of seed in some varieties is 
larger than in others. Some 
varieties have green seed, some 
gray and still others have 
blackish or necked seed. In 
the upland varieties most seed 
are covered with a short fuzz. 
A bushel of seed weighs 33f 
pounds. 

Varieties of Upland Cot- 
ton Grouped. — The cotton 
plant is a native of the tropics; 
but under the influence of man, 
its growth has been extended 
far into the temperate zones and its habit changed from a biennial to 
an annual. Climate, soil, selection and cultivation have wrought many 
changes in the plant. The true and so-called varieties now number 
several hundred. 

To facilitate the study of so many varieties, a system of grouping, 
worked out by the Alabama Experiment Station, is followed. According 
to form of plant, size of boll, time of maturing and other characteristics, 
they are classified into six groups: cluster, semi-cluster, Peterkin, King, 
big-boll and long-staple upland. There is no striking demarcation between 
any two groups, but a gradual blending of the characters of one into the 
next group. 




A Good Cotton Plant Showing Good Base 
Limbs; Variety, Cook. 



COTTON PRODUCTION 193 

Cluster Group. — The distinguishing characteristics of the cluster 
group are the one or two long base limbs near the ground and above them 
the many short fruit-limbs that bear the bolls in clusters of two or three. 
The plants are usually tall, slender and bend over under the weight of the 
green bolls; the bolls of most varieties are small, pointed and difficult to pick. 

The leading varieties of the cluster group are Jackson and Dillon. 
The Dillon variety is important where cotton wilt {Neocosmospora vasin- 
fecta) exists, because of its considerable immunity to this disease. 

Semi-Cluster Group. — This group somewhat resembles the cluster 
group, except that its fruit-limbs are longer and the bolls do not grow in 
clusters. Its varieties have medium to large bolls and large, white, fuzzy 
seed. 

Two well-known varieties of this group are Hawkins and Poulnot. 
Bolls of both are medium size, slightly pointed and easily picked. One 
hundred pounds of seed cotton yields about thirty-four pounds of lint. 

Peterkin Group. — The fruit and vegetative branches of the varieties 
of this group are long and nearly straight; its leaves are small and have 
rather sharp-pointed lobes; its bolls are medium to small in size; its seed 
is small and many of them are without much fuzz. A striking character- 
istic of the members of this group is the high percentage of lint that they 
3deld — often as high as 40 per cent. 

Some of the well-known varieties of this group are Peterkin, Toole, 
Layt.on and Dixie. Layton and Peterkin are very much alike, except that 
Layton does not have as many necked seed and is probably more uniform in 
type. Toole and a selection from it called Covington Toole, resemble 
both King and Peterkin groups. Toole has small bolls, is early and very 
productive. Some selections from Covington Toole are fairly immune to 
cotton wilt and are extensively grown in sections affected by this disease. 
Dixie is a variety that is being bred up by the United States Department 
of Agriculture to resist cotton wilt. 

King Group. — This group embraces the earliest varieties. The plants 
do not grow large; the leaves and bolls are usually small. Its base limbs 
are often wanting, and its fruit limbs are usually long and crooked. A 
distinguishing mark of the group is the red spot on the inner side of the 
petals of many plants. Most varieties drop the locks of cotton on the 
ground when they are rained on or blown by hard wind. 

The leading varieties are King, Simpkins, Bank Account, Broad well, 
etc. On the northern border of the cotton belt these varieties are well 
adapted because of their earliness. 

Big-Boll Group. — This group is marked by the size of its bolls. When 
seventy or less will yield a pound of seed cotton, the bolls are considered 
large and classed as a big-boll variety. Some varieties have long limbs; 
others have short ones, giving the plant a semi-cluster appearance. As a 
general rule, all big-boll varieties have rank stalks, large, heavy foliage and 
mature their fruit late. 



194 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Some of the widely grown big-boll varieties are Triumph, Cleveland, 
Truitt, Russell, etc. Triumph originated in Texas and is grown extensively 
there. It shows considerable storm resistance, has big bolls, is easy to 
pick and yields well under boll-weevil conditions. Cleveland has medium 
size bolls and is medium early, but it lacks storm resistance. Russell is 
late in maturing, has many large green seed and turns out a low percentage 
of lint. 

Cook Improved is a leading variety whose bolls are scarcely large 
enough to belong to the big-boll group. The type of plant is variable. 
This variety yields a high percentage of lint, is early and easily picked and 
has stood at the top in yield of seed cotton in many experiments. However, 
it has two faults — a tendency to boll-rot (Anthracnose), and a lack of storm 
resistance. 

Long-Staple Upland Group. — The chief characteristic of this group is 
the leng-th of its fiber, which measures from 1| to IJ inches long. Most 
long staple varieties are late and, therefore, are not suited for that part of 
the country infested with boll-weevils. The percentage of lint is lower 
than the other upland varieties, but it commands a premimn of three or 
four cents a pound. Some of the better known long-staple varieties are 
Webber, Griffin and Allen Long-Staple. 

Desired Qualities of a Variety. — By careful selection, the type of plant 
or yield of seed cotton of any common variety may be greatly improved in a 
few years. 

Some of the desirable qualities of a variety are : 

(1) Large yield of lint. 

(2) Medium to large size bolls that are easy to pick. 

(3) Plants that are true to type and healthy. 

(4) Medium earliness with some storm resistance. 

Selection. — Field selection is the one method most frequently employed 
to improve a variety of cotton. It consists in sending a picker, who is 
familiar with the points to be improved, ahead of the other pickers to select 
the best plants and to pick the well-matured bolls on them. In this way a 
few hundred pounds of well-selected seed cotton is gathered and then 
carefully ginned. The next year the selected seeds are planted in a well- 
prepared and fertilized field away from the other varieties for a seed patch. 
From the seed patch selection is made in the same way as the year before 
in the field. By repeating this operation for several years a variety may 
be greatly improved. However, no variety will continue pure if the seeds 
are handled at the public gins in the usual careless way. 

Soils Adapted to Cotton. — Cotton is grown on all types of soil from the 
light sandy to the heavy claj^s, from the badly eroded hills to the rich 
alluvial bottoms. However, in this wide range of soils are planted many 
acres that would yield a better income if they were planted in some other 
crop. It is the low yield of the poorly adapted acres that makes cotton an 
unprofitable crop on so many farms. 



COTTON PRODUCTION 



195 



The type of soil influences the earhness of the cotton plants. As a 
general rule, cotton grown on light, sandy soil makes a rapid growth and 
matures the fruit early — a decided advantage where boll-weevils exist; 
while that on heavy clay soil may grow until frost stops it, if the season is 
favorable. Light soils are not naturally productive, but by the use of 500 
to 1000 pounds of complete commercial fertilizer per acre, the yield is 
increased from one-third of a bale to one or two bales an acre. 

Special Types of Soil. — Of the different types of soil, the heavier 
members of the Orangeburg series are the best adapted to cotton culture. 




Cotton Grown by Single Stalk Method.^ 



They are marked by a reddish-brown to gray color and open structure soil 
with a friable, sandy-clay subsoil. 

The Greenville series is very much like the Orangeburg in its adapta- 
tion to cotton. 

The Norfolk soils are not so productive; but when there is an abun- 
dance of humus and a liberal supply of commercial fertilizer, they will 
produce a heavy early crop of cotton. 

The Houston series east of the Mississippi and the Victorian west, 
with good cultivation and proper seasons, produce above an average crop. 
However, the cotton plants often suffer from rust. 

In the Piedmont regions are' located the Cecil soils. Where there is 
not a deficiency of humus, these soils are productive, but the plant grows 

» From p. I. Bulletin 279. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



10r> SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

slowly in the spring and late in the fall — a condition favorable to 
boll-weevils. 

Along the rivers and smaller streams are strips of alluvial land called 
bottoms. They are nsnnlly fertile, well watered and produce a rank growth 
of plants that do not make fruit in proportion to their size. On such land, 
hay or corn is a more profitable crop. 

FERTILIZER AND CULTIVATION 

Plant Food Removed by Cotton. — There is probably no cultivated 
crop that draws so lightly uixm the fertilit,y of the soil as cotton. The 
a.verage crop per acre in the United States is slightly less than 600 pounds 
seed cotton yielding 200 pounds lint. This amount of lint removes from 
the land only. 42 pound nitrogen, .15 pound phosphoric acid and 1.32 pounds 
potash. When both s(hh1 and lint are remoV(Hl, the loss is 13 pounds nitro- 
gen, 4.74 pounds phosphoric acid and 5.70 pounds potash. The roots, 
stems, leaves and burs contain about as much nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid, and about three times as much potash, as the seed ccttcn. These 
parts of the plants arc seldom removed from the field. 

Need of Humus. — In the cotton belt the amount of humus in the soil 
is small. The A\arm, moist conditions that ])r(n'ail during a. large part c4 
the year favor rapid nitrification; and the luvivy winter and spring rains 
rapidly leach out the soluble plant-food. As a general practice, cotton 
follows cotton year after year and receives clean cultivation and furnishes 
little organic matter to replenish thc> humus. There is needed en every 
farm some systtun of crop rotation in which cue crop is plowed under to 
renew the lunnus. 

Need of Nitrogen. — The small size of the cotton i:)lants ever large 
anws is evidcnun^ of the deficiency of nitrogen in the soil. In many fields 
the plants are large enougli to mak(^ only two or three bolls. To make a 
profitable crop they should be two or three feet high, full of fruit and have 
a rich black color during the growing season. The only lands that do not 
need a supply of nitrogcni arc the rich bottoms or those that have received 
a heavy crop of clover or some other legume for soil imj^rovement. 

The chief sources of nitrogen in commercial fertilizer are cottonseed 
meal, Avhich also furnishes some phosphoric acid and potash, nitrate of 
soda, tankage and calcium cyanamid. If quick results are desired, as in 
the case of a side a])i)lication to a growing crop, some soluble form like 
nitrate of soda is used. 

Need of Phosphoric Acid. — The need of phosphoric acid is almcst 
universal. IMost fertilizer experiments show an increased j'ield whenever it 
is used. The only soils that do not show an increased yield from its use 
are the rich alluvial lands and Houston and Victoria clays. A liberal 
application of acid i)]iosi)hate on heavy clay soil often hastc^ns the maturing 
of a crop of bolls that would not ripen and open before frost. When a 
crop of 200 or 300 pounds lint cotton is expected, it is usual to 



COTTON PRODUCTION 107 

a,I)ph' 150 or 200 pounds acid phosphate either before pkuiting or as 
a side dressing. 

Need of Potash. — Loose, sandy soils and the Houston clays show an 
ii: creased yield when kainit or some other potash fertilizer is used; but 
most red clay and some silty soils do not seem to need artificial potash to 
make an average crop. The red clay soils, as a rule, have a great deal of 
potash, but it is slowly available. 

When used alone, an excess of potash tends to delaj' the maturity of 
the fruit. When used in connection with other matt^rials making a complete 
fertilizer, the tendenc}- to lateness is obviatt>d. Some soils subject to cotton 
rust are greatly improved by the use of 150 to 200 pounds kainit or 35 to 
50 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. 

Commercial Fertilizers Profitable. — Commercial fertilizers usually 
pay a good iirofit, wh(ni the season is favorable and they are intelligently 
used. Lands that formerly produced a half a bale of cotton, now by the 
use of $8 or $10 worth of liigh-gTade commercial fertilizer adapted to the 
needs of the land, produce a bale per acre without much additional expense. 
Th(^re is a strong tendency all over the cotton belt to increase the amount 
of fertilizer antl especially the amoiuit of nitrogen. ]\Iany farmers are 
using 400 to 600 pounds of a fornmla that analyzes 5 per cent phosphoric 
acid, 4 per cent ammonia and 3 per cent potash for sandy soils and the 
same with l(\ss potash for the clay soils. 

Three-Year Rotation Suggested. — The long practice of planting 
cotton continuously on the same land has destroyed nearly all the humus 
in the soil. To increase the humus and to maintain soil fertility in the 
cotton states, the follomng three-year rotation is recommended: 

First year.— Cotton, following in the fall with crimson clover or some 
other winter cover crop. 

Second year. — Corn with cowpeas sowed or drilled between the rows 
at the last cultivation. 

Third year. — Oats or wheat followed by cowpeas sowed broadcast 
for hay or soil improvement. 

Preparation of Land. — ^The onlj^ preparation a great deal of the cotton 
land receives before planting is one plowing, which consists in throwing 
up beds or ridges on which the seed is planted. JManj^ farmers are begin- 
ning to recognize the need of better preparation and are jjlowing the land 
flat and then bedding it before planting. 

Much of the plowing is done with a one-horse plow to a depth of four 
or five inches. However, the lands that are producing a bale of cotton 
to the acre are plowed with a team to a depth of six or eight inches. Sub- 
soiling, as a special operation, is not recommended, but deeper plowing is 
proving beneficial in many parts of the cotton belt. 

Time of Plowing. — Late fall or winter plowing is commendable for 
heavy soils and those that have a great deal of litter on them, if such lands 
axe not subject to severe erosion. Light, sandy soils are liable to \vinter 



198 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



leaching if plowed early. All fall-plowed lands, especially if they are 
sandy or subject to erosion, should have some winter cover crop like crimson 
clover or grain so that their roots may take up the plant food as fast as it 
becomes available and prevent washing of the surface. In the early spring 
the cover crop is plowed under in the final preparation for planting. In a 
large measure the date of the first plowing should be governed by the labor 
on hand, the amount of litter and stiffness of soil. 

Seed-Bed. — Land that was plowed broadcast in the winter or early 
spring is marked off in rows by a furrow that receives the fertilizer. Where 
cotton follows cotton without any previous plowing, as is too often the 
practice in a large part of the cotton belt, a furrow with a middle-buster 
is run in the row of old stalks or in the middle of the previous rows, and the 




TuENiNG Under Crimson Clover for Cotton. 



fertilizer is distributed in this open furrow with a one-horse machine that 
has a shovel-plow to mix soil and fertilizer together. By throwing over 
the fertilizer four or five furrows with a turning plow, a bed or ridge is 
formed four or five inches high and two feet wide. When no fertilizer is 
used, many farmers omit even the center furrow and "list" or bed without 
running the center furrow as a preparation for the row. 

Planting. — Just before planting a drag or spring-tooth harrow is 
drawn across the beds or lengthwise to smooth them down and freshen the 
surface. On well-drained land some farmers are discarding the high beds 
and planting on a level surface. In the western" part of the cotton belt, 
where the rainfall is below twenty-two inches, much planting is done in a 
water-furrow made with a two-horse lister. 

In the southern part of the cotton belt, planting begins in March and is 
usually completed in the northern part of the cotton belt by the end of May. 



COTTON PRODUCTION 199 

Most of the crop is planted in April. Where boll weevils are present, 
planting should be made as soon as the danger from frost is past. 

The seeds are sown or dropjjed in a shallow furrow and covered one or 
two inches deep in soil. If the soil is dry the seed should be planted deeper 
and the soil shghtly packed on the seed. When the seed is drilled, one-half 
to one bushel of seed is required to plant an acre ; when planted in hills, 
one or two pecks are required. If the land is rough, the planting should be 
thicker to secure a stand without replanting. 

Tillage. — Prompt germination is desirable. If a rain packs the surface 
or a crust forms before the seed comes up, the surface should be stirred with 
a spike-tooth harrow or weeder to help the young plants to break through 
the crust. The harrow or weeder may be drawn across the rows after the 
plants come up to destroy small weeds and to cultivate the cotton plants. 
When the cotton begins to show its true leaves, it should be cultivated with 
a scrape or turner, which leaves the plants on a narrow ridge. The cotton 
is then thinned to one plant in a hill about one foot apart on poor land and 
about one and one-half to two feet apart on fertile land. Soon after 
thinning a little soil should be pushed up round the young plants. This 
may be done with a small scrape, sweep or spring-tooth cultivator. 

Flat, shallow, frequent cultivation should be given the growing crop 
until about the first^of August, when it may cease, unless the crop is very 
late. 

HARVESTING AND MARKETING 

Picking. — Cotton is picked by hand. A picker hangs a bag over his 
shoulder, picks the cotton out of the open bolls and drops it in his bag. 
He picks 150 to 200 pounds seed cotton a day and receives from forty to 
seventy-five cents per hundred pounds. 

Picking begins in the latter part of August or early in September and 
ends about the first of December. When labor is scarce, the time of harvest 
may be prolonged until midwinter. Cotton should be picked out as fast 
as it opens to jDrevent damage from storms or rotting of fiber. 

Picking is an expensive operation because it has to be done by hand. 
However, it does not require much skill and much of it is done by the cheap- 
est of labor — ^^vomen and children. Many cotton picking machines have 
been invented, but none of them have proven successful. They damage the 
plant and gather much trash with the cotton. 

Cotton should not be picked when it is wet, nor should locks fallen 
on the ground and badly stained be picked up and mixed with the white 
cotton. The damaged cotton should be placed in a separate bale. If 
cotton is picked when it is slightly wet, it should be dried before ginning, 
as damp cotton cannot be ginned without injury to the fiber. 

Ginning. — When 1200 or 1500 pounds of seed cotton have been picked, 
it is usually hauled to a public ginnery. A suction pipe draws the seed 
cotton into a screen where a great deal of the dirt and trash is blown out, 
and then drops it into a feeder. The feeder picks up locks or small wads 

22 



200 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



of cotton and drops them into the gin-breast, where they form a revolving 
roll of seed cotton. On the under side of this roll are many small circular 
saws rapidly revolving in opposite directions and cutting the lint cff the 
seed, A rapidly revolving brush takes the lint off the saws and drive s it 
into a condenser. The lint is then dropped into a large box and packed 
into a bale of cotton, which is now ready for the market or warehouse. 

Cotton Seed. — The s(hk1 is usually sold to a cottons(>ed-oil mill. The 
short lint or fuzz is cut off the seed and is called 'Winters." The seed is 
then run through a mill that takes off the hulls, which are used for cattle 
food; the kernels, or meats as they are called, are ground and cocked, after 




A FiJiiLD OF Cotton. 



which they are put in a powerful press that removes th(> crude oil and leaves 
a hard yellow cake. 

The crude oil is refined and from it are obtained: (1) "summer white 
oil," which is used in the manufacture of a coui])()und of lard; (2) stearin, 
used in making solid oils, etc.; and (3) a residue that is used in making 
soap. On the dry western stock ranches, a great deal of the yellow cake is 
fed to cattle and sheep in the winter; the cake is ground, forming what is 
known as cottonse(Ml menl, and is used as stock food and commercial 
fertilizer. Ilecent experiments show that specially ])rei)ared meal mixed 
with wheat flour mak(^s an excellent nutritious bread. 

Not many decades ago, cottonseed was a waste product on the farm, 
but now the commercial value of the seed equals one-seventh the value of 
the lint. 



COTTON PRODUCTION 201 

On an average 1500 pounds of seed cotton make a 500-pound bale and 
1000 pounds of seed. When the seed passes through an oil -mill, it pro- 
duces about 150 pounds crude oil, 337 pounds meal, 500 pounds hulls and 
13 pounds linters. 

Storing. — After the cotton is ginned, the bales may be marketed at 
once, or stored on the farm or in a public warehouse. The bales of cotton 
are often left lying about the ginhouse or homes, exposed to the vveather. 
As a result of the weather, their covering becomes badly damaged and the 
lint tinged with a bluish color, and the buyer "docks" them to cover the 
damage. 

Bales of cotton should be stored under a shed on timber to prevent 
their touching the damp ground and absorbing moisture. In many markets 
are large public w^arehouses where cotton can be weighed, stored and 
insured at a small cost per bale. 

Before selling a bale, a sample of lint is drawn from each covered side 
and placed together as a sample of the bale. The buyer judges its grade 
and makes a bid. The price is based on the grade and the demand for that 
grade of cotton in the markets. Most farmers do not know the grade of 
their cotton, as it takes expert knowledge to classify cotton correctly. 
They accept the highest price bid on the cotton as the top of the market 
for that grade. Where a large number of bales are offered in the market, 
often an expert grader is employed to classify the cotton, which method 
usually gives satisfaction to seller and buyer. 

When a foreign or domestic mill washes a quantity of a given grade, an 
order is placed with an agent, and this agent goes to the warehouses or 
dealers and buys the grades desired. If the bales have to be shipped far, 
they are sent to the compress, where the size is greatty reduced by a 
powerful press and thereby the cost of transportation is reduced. 

Grades of Cotton.— The grades of cotton depend mainly on (1) color 
of fiber, (2) amount of trash, and (>3) quality of ginning. A high grade 
requires that the filler be white, with a slightly creamy tinge, strong and 
free from trash or dirt. When the cotton shows a yellowish or bluish tinge, 
the fiber usually is not strong; immaturity or exposure to the weather are 
the usual causes for this condition. To get a high grade, the farmer should 
pick the cotton from only the fully opened and matured bolls, and pick 
it free from trash and dirt. 

There are seven primary gi-ades in the commercial classification of lint 
cotton. They are named in the order of value: (1) ''fair," (2) "middling 
fair," (3) "good middling," (4) "middling," (5) "low middling," (6) 
"good ordinary," (7) "ordinary." The half grades, which lie between the 
primary grades are named by prefixing the word "strict" to the name of 
the next lower grade, as "strict good middling," which is a half grade better 
than "good middling." The telegraphic dispatches from the cotton 
exchanges quote prices on "middling," and the prices of better and lower 
grades are calculated on the basis of "middling," 



202 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

The larger part of the cotton crop of the United States falls under the 
following grades: strict good middling, good middling, strict middling 
and middling. Storms and early frost increase the quantity in the lower 
grades. 

The diseases and insect enemies of cotton are discussed in Part II 
of this book. 

REFERENCES 

"From Cotton Field to Cotton Mill." Thompson. 

"Hemp." Boyce. 

" Cotton. " Biirkctt and Poe. 

"Southern Field Corps." Duggar. 

Alabama Tuskegee Station Bulletin 20. " A New and Prolific Variety of Cotton." 

Alabama Tuskegee Station Circular 23. " Boll Weevil Control by Cotton Stalk De- 
struction." 

Alabama Experiment Station Bulletin 180. "Wilt Resistant Varieties of Cotton." 

Georgia Station Bulletin 113. "Variety Work with Corn and Cotton." 

Mississijijii Station Bulletin 169. " Cotton Experiments 1914." 

MiBsissii3]u Station Bulletin 173. "Cotton Experiments." 

North Carolina Station Bulletin 231. "Report on \'ariety Tests of Cotton for 1914." 

South Carolina Station Ikillctir. 185. " Cotton — Varieties and Limiting B'actor Tests." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; 

Bulletin 38. "Egyptian Cotton Seed Selection." 

Bulletin 62. " Tests of the Waste, Tensil Strength mil Bleaching Qualities of 
the Different Grades of Cotton as Standardized by the Ignited States Govern- 
ment." 
Bulletin 121. " Spinning Tests of Up-land Long-staple Cottons." 
Bulletin 146. "Economic Conditions in the Sea Island Cotton Industry." 
Bulletin 216. "Cotton Warehouses: Storage Facilities Now Available in the 

South." 
Bulletin 279. " Single Stalk Cotton Culture at San Antonio." 
Bulletin 288. " Custom Ginning as a Factor in Cotton-seed Deterioration." 
Bulletin 31 1 . " The Handling and Marketing of the Ai-izona Egyptian Cotton 

of the Salt River Valley." 
Bulletin 332. " Community Production of Egj'ptian Cotton in the United 

States." 
Bulletin 382. " Cotton Boll- Weevil Control." 
l^ulletin 375. " Disadvantages of Selling Cotton in the Seed." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry: 

Circular 26. "Egyptian Cotton in Southwestern U. S." 
Circular 57. "Cultivation of Hemp in U. S." 
Circular 123. " Production of Long-Staple Cotton." 

Farmers' Bulletins, IT. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 
302. "Sea Island Cotton." 

314. " Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape Boll-Weevil." 
326. " Building up a Run-Down Cotton Plantation " 
364. " A Profitable Cotton Farm." 

501. " Cotton Improvement Under Weevil Conditions." 
577. "Growing Egyptian Cotton in the Salt River Valley, Arizona." 
591. "The Classification and Grading of Cotton." 
601. " A New System of Cotton Culture and Its Application." 



CHAPTER 17 

Tobacco 

By George T. McNess 
Tobacco Expert, Texas Experiment Station 

Types and Their Commercial Uses. — The commercial tobaccos of 
North America are divided into three principal types, known as cigar leaf, 
manufacturing and export. These types are again subdivided according 
to their market grades and commercial use. The cigar type consists of 
three grades: wrapper, binder and filler leaf. The wrapper is a fine- 
textured leaf used for covering the outside of the cigar, and must have 
good appearance, length and width, be uniform in color and have fine 
veins. Cigar wrapper leaf is the highest priced tobacco produced in North 
America. The binder is that part of a cigar which holds the filler leaf or 
bunch together. This grade of tobacco must have fair size and possess 
good burning qualities. It is generally selected from the poorer grades of 
wrapper leaf. The filler is that part which constitutes the bulk of the cigar, 
and varies in quality according to the kind of tobacco used for this purpose. 
Filler tobacco should possess good aroma, taste and perfect combustion. 

There are quite a number of tobaccos used for cigar purposes, each 
having distinctive characteristics and grown in different parts of the 
country. The kind of seed used, the influence of climate, soil conditions 
and methods of culture and curing determine the ultimate use of the leaf. 

The tobaccos used in the manufacturing of cigars are: the Havana 
Seed, Broadleaf, Cuban Seed, Florida Sumatra, Georgia Sumatra, Texas 
Hybrid, Wisconsin Seed, Pennsylvania Seed, Zimmer Spanish, Gebhardt 
and Little Dutch. Several types of tobacco are used in the manufacture 
of smoking and chewing tobaccos, the principal type used in this country 
being the White Burley, which is grown in Kentucky and parts of Ohio. 
Cigarette tobacco is manufactured from the bright flue-cured leaf of the 
Carolinas and southern Virginia. About 60 per cent of the crop is used for 
home consumption. The heavy or fire-cured tobaccos are mostly exported 
to Europe, although some of the finer grades are used for plug wrappers. 

Principal Tobacco Districts. — The finest cigar tobaccos are grown in 
the New England states of Connecticut and Massachusetts, and in the 
South in Florida, Gegrgia and Texas. These states produce the fine grade 
cigar wrapper leaf. In the New England states it is grown under cloth 
shades, while in the Southern states a slat shade is used. These shade- 
groA\ai tobaccos rival the fine tobaccos imported from Sumatra and Cuba 
both in quality of burn and taste and in vva-apping capacity. The binder 

(203) 



204 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



tobaccos are produced in the states of Connecticut and Wisconsin; while 
filler leaf of the various types comes from the Miami Valley of Ohio, 
and from Pennsylvania, Florida, Texas, Georgia and Connecticut. 

The manufacturing tobaccos, air, sun, flue and fire-cured, are growTi in 
Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, Tennessee and North and South Carolina. 
Maryland also produces a fine grade of pipe tobacco, but most of this 
tobacco is exported to England and France. Nearly all of the fire-cured 




Field of Virginia Heavy Tobacco. 



tobaccos produced in the alcove states are exported to the various parts 
of the world. 

Tobacco Soils. — It might be well to mention briefly a few of the prin- 
cipal soils upon which tobacco is growTi. The heavy tobaccos of Virginia 
are grown in the Piedmont District on soil known as the Cecil clay or Cecil 
clay loam. This soil is a heavy, red clay soil and produces a heavy-bodied 
dark-colored tobacco. This type of soil is also found in the tobacco dis- 
tricts of Tennessee and part of Kentucky. The soil of the Carolinas is 
a very light-gray, sandy soil and belongs to the Norfolk series of soils as 
classified by the U. S. Bureau of Soils. This soil produces a light-colored, 
thin-textured leaf which is used in the manufacture of cigarettes and 
granulated tobaccos. The soil upon which the burly tobacco is grown is 
also a light soil, as is also the tobacco soil of Maryland. The tobacco soil 



TOBACCO 



205 



of Connecticut and Massachusetts is a light, gravelly soil belonging to the 
Hartford series of soils, and when well fertilized produces a fine quality 
of tobacco. 

The principal tobacco soils of the South Atlantic and Gulf states are 
light sand to sandy loam, underlaid by either a yellow or red sandy clay. 
These soils run from gray to red in color, and where they have the yellow 
clay subsoil they belong to the Norfolk series, while the red clay subsoil 
places them in the Orangeburg series. The Orangeburg soils are more 
productive than the Norfolk and the better grades of cigar leaf are produced 
upon the former soil. These southern soils are responsive to fertilization, 




Field of Cigar Leaf Tobacco. 



and as high as one ton of commercial fertilizer is used to the acre by the 
best growers. 

The soils of Ohio are of limestone formation, and produce a heavy- 
bodied cigar filler leaf having good aroma, but on account of the hme content 
are apt to flake. The Pennsylvania soils are a little heavj^ for the produc- 
tion of wTapper leaf, but the standard cigar filler leaf used in this country 
is produced upon these soils. The soils of Texas are the Orangeburg and 
Norfolk, which produce the same grade of tobacco as Florida and Georgia. 
They are found in the eastern portion of the state. For additional 
information on soils, see Chapter 1 on "Soil Classification and Crop 
Adaptation." 

Preparation and Care of Seed-Bed. — The preparation of the seed-bed 
varies in the different tobacco districts, owing to some extent to the varied 
climatic conditions, financial condition of the grower and type of tobacco 
being grown. The most expensive and complete seed-beds are to be found 



20G 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



in the New England states, while less i)retentious ones are to be found in 
the Carolinas. The object, however, is the same, that is, to produce a 
supply of good, healthy, vigorous plants ; for a failure of the seed-bed means 
a failure of the crop. 

In Connecticut and Massachusetts the young plants are grown under 
glass in steam-heated beds, and the tobacco seed is sprouted before being 
sown in order to produce plants by the time danger of frost is over. It is 
only in the Northern states that it is necessary to go to this expense and 
trouble. In most of the heavy tobacco-growdng districts, as well as in the 




Tobacco Plant-bed, or Tobacco Seed-bed. 

South Atlantic and Gulf states, the open seed-bed is used, the only covering 
being a thin cheesecloth to keep out the cold and conserve the heat and 
moisture in the bed. 

In locating a good seed-bed for any type of tobacco the prospective 
grower should select a piece of ground near to water, having a southern 
exposure and protected on the north either by liuildings or timber. The 
l)est plan is to select a piece of woodland near a small stream having the 
desired exposure. The timber should be cut off the land in the fall of the 
year, split into desired lengths and sizes and stacked to dry. January is the 
best time to burn a seed-bed, excepting in the Northern states. In these 
states this form of bed is not used. The first operation is to rake from the 
bed all leaves and trash, then lay across the bed skids of green pine poles, 
upon which the cut timber with a good supply of small brush is placed. 
This pile of wood and brush should extend clear across the bed, but not over 



TOBACCO 207 

the entire length. The fire should then be started and let burn until the 
soil directly under the fire has been burnt to a depth of three inches. It 
is then dragged on the skids and another section of the bed burnt. This 
operation is repeated until the entire bed is burnt. As soon as the ground 
has cooled off, the coals should be raked off the bed and the fine ashes spaded 
or plowed under. 

The bed is now ready for the frame to be placed around it. In some 
states logs are used for this purpose, but one-inch planks twelve inches 
wide and any desired length, best serve the purpose. The most conve- 
nient size to make a seed-bed is six feet wide and fifty feet long, which will 
make 300 square feet of bed. In building the frame to go around the beds 
the planks should be set upon edge and where the ends meet they are nailed 
to a stake which has previously' been driven in the ground (see preceding 
page). After the frame is complete a No. 9 wire should be stretched from 
the center of one end of the frame to the other, supported at intervals by 
stakes, the tops of which are about two inches higher than the top of the 
frame. When the cloth is stretched over the frame this will cause a peak 
or ridge to the cloth roof. 

Prior to stretching the cloth over the frame, fertilizer should be applied 
to the bed. Best results have been obtained by using twenty-five pounds 
of cottonseed meal and ten pounds of acid phosphate to every fifty square 
yards of seed-bed. This should be thoroughl}' mixed with the soil, and 
should be api^lied several days before the tobacco seed is sown. This 
form of seed-bed is now used in nearly all of the tobacco districts of the 
United States with the exception of the New England states, where, on 
account of their severe climatic conditions and short gro"wdng season, glass 
frames and steam heat are used in order to obtain early seedlings. 

In sowing a seed-bed it is very important to secure a uniform stand of 
seedlings and in order to have a stocky growth they must not stand too 
thick in the bed. On account of the small size of tobacco seeds, it is neces- 
sary to mix them with some foreign substance in order to facilitate uniform 
distribution in the bed. The best material to use for this purpose is fine- 
sifted dry ashes. One ounce of tobacco seed mixed with one gallon of 
sifted wood-ashes will plant three hundred square feet of bed. More than 
this amount of seed sown to three hundred square feet of bed will cause the 
plants to grow too thick; consequently, they will not have that desired 
stocky gro^\'th. The seed should not be raked in, but simply pressed into 
the surface of the soil either by a small roller or by a board placed upon the 
bed and pressure applied. As soon as the seeds have been pressed into 
the soil the bed should be watered and the cloth covering placed in 
position. 

If the seed-bed has been well burnt and otherwise prepared very little 
attention will be needed except the daily watering, and this must not be 
neglected if a good germination is desired, for the grower must remember 
that the seed is upon the surface of the soil and that it takes moisture and 



208 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

heat to cause the seed to germinat©. Tobacco seed germinates in from 
ten to fourteen days under normal conditions. 

In the Southern states it may be necessary to weed the plant beds, and 
wherever weeds or grass appear in the bed they should immediately be 
pulled out. From six to seven weeks after sowing the seed the young plants 
will be ready to transplant to the field. The cloth cover should be removed 
for a few days prior to transplanting so as to harden the plants, and the 
beds should be well watered before the plants are pulled in order to lessen 
the injury to the roots. Plants should be taken from the plant-bed in the 
early morning and placed in a shady place until used. 

Preparation of the Soil. — Tobacco requires a good seed-bed, therefore, 
the preparation of the soil is one of importance, and although the minor 
details of soil preparation may differ in the various tobacco districts, the 
ultimate object should be the same. Fields intended for tobacco culture 
should be plowed the previous fall to a depth of at least ten or twelve inches, 
and, if it is desirable, as in some localities,to apply stable manure, this should 
be applied at the rate of from fifteen to twenty loads to the acre, broadcasted 
over the field before plowing. Lime has been found beneficial upon some 
tobacco soils and should be applied after the land is plowed, and disked in 
during the preparation of the seed-bed. 

The spring preparation of the soil depends largely upon the method 
to be used in transplanting the seedlings, either by machinery or by hand. 
In most of the Northern states, especially where cigar leaf tobacco is grown, 
machine setting is practiced, while in the Central Atlantic and Southern 
states most of the tobacco is transplanted by hand. 

In the North where machinery is used the fertilizer is applied broadcast 
after the spring plowing and harrowed in by means of a disk harrow. 
Smoothing harrows, such as the Acme or Meeker, are then run several 
times over the fields, pulverizing the soil and leaving it in good condition 
for the planter. 

In the Central Atlantic and Gulf Coast states most of the tobacco is 
transplanted by hand and the fields require entirely different treatment 
than where the machine is used. The field to be used for tobacco culture 
is bedded up during February, the beds varying from three to three and 
one-half feet apart for cigar tobaccos. The commercial fertilizer is applied 
in the drill and mixed with the soil by having a single-shovel plow furrow 
run in the drill, after which two furrows are made with a one-horse turning 
plow forming a list. 

The field is left in this condition until the plants are large enough on 
the plant-bed to transplant to the field. At this time this list is leveled 
off either by a small harrow or with a log. Where the land has been listed 
for some time, it is good practice to re-list and then log off, as the small 
plants will take root much quicker in fresh-plowed mellow soil. 

Fertilizers. — Tobacco responds to good fertilization and feeds heavily 
on nitrogen and potash. Larger amounts of commercial fertilizer are used 



TOBACCO 209 

in the production of cigar leaf tobacco than with tobacco used for other 
purposes. The principal source of nitrogen is from cottonseed meal, 
although where the heavy tobaccos are grown, castor pumace or ground 
blood is used to some extent. Potash is needed in the production of all 
tobaccos in order to improve the burning qualities of the leaf. Only- 
sulphate or carbonate of potash should be used, as the salt contained in the 
muriate of potash is detrimental to the burning quality of the leaf. Phos- 
phoric acid is also necessary in small amounts. 

In the tobacco-growing regions of Florida, Georgia and Texas a vast 
amount of money is spent each season for commercial fertilizers. In 
addition to a liberal application of stable manure, as high as 2000 pounds 
of cottonseed meal, 400 pounds of sulphate of potash and 200 pounds of 
acid phosphate are used to the acre in the production of cigar wrapper leaf. 
Like amounts are used in the New England states. Smaller amounus are 
used in the production of heavy and export tobacco, and in such states as 
Virginia a crop rotation in which clover appears as one of the crops in the 
rotation, reduces the amount of commercial fertilizer, especially that which 
is used as a source of nitrogen. 

Transplanting and Cultivation. — When the seedlings in the plant-bed 
have reached a height of from four to six inches, they are ready to be 
transplanted to the field. Great care is necessary in taking the seedling 
from the bed that the roots are not injured; therefore, it is necessary to 
water the bed well before pulling up the plants. Plants should be taken 
from the bed early in the morning and placed in a cool, shady place until 
they are to be used. If pulled during a rainy season there is no use in 
watering the bed and they can be used at once. Plants should be pulled 
one at a time with the finger and the thumb taking hold of the plant close 
to the ground. They should be shaken off or, if water is near, the soil 
washed from the roots, and then packed with the roots down in a basket 
or box. 

Where a machine is used for transplanting, the field is usually left flat, 
having been previously harrowed so as to present a fresh surface. Two 
men are required to feed the machine and one to do the driving. There 
are several makes of transplanters, the most popular being the Beemis and 
the Tiger. These machines open the furrow, set the plants and place 
any amount of water desired around the roots. Tobacco transplanted by 
means of these machines appears to recover from the shock of being trans- 
planted, and grows off much sooner and with more uniformity than when 
planted by hand. Another advantage of machine transplanting is that the 
transplanting can be done just as well, if not better, during dry weather 
as during wefc, or when the soil is in favorable condition. These machines 
have been in use in the northern tobacco states for years, and they are 
gradually finding favor with the southern grower. The cheap negro 
labor of the South has been the principal cause of their restricted use, 
but as the price of labor has risen in the last few years, tobacco trans- 



210 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



planters are now being used with success where formerly hand setting 
was practiced. 

When hand setting of tobacco is practiced, the field is bedded instead 
of flat, the beds are marked off the distance required to plant the seedlings, 

and if the soil is at all 
dry, water is applied 
at these places. The 
plants are then 
dropped at each mark 
and a laborer sets 
them at these places 
with a dibble. Ti'ans- 
planting by hand 
should be done only 
when the soil is in a 
good moisture con- 
dition, or during 
cloudy or rainy 
weather. The dis- 
tance at which the 
plants are set in the 
rows depends entirely 
on the type and com- 
mercial use of the 
tobacco. The heavy 
tobaccos of Virginia 
and Tennessee and 
the flue-cured tobaccos 
of the Carolinas are 
usually checked at a 
distance of thirty-six 
inches, while cigar leaf 
tobaccos are set in 
the drill from twelve 
to eighteen inches, 
according to their 
type. 

Tobaccos of all 
types require frequent and thorough cultivation. No weeds or grass 
should ever be allowed to grow in the field. Cultivation usually 
begins about eight days after transplanting, when the young plants 
should be hoed and given a reasonably deep plo-ndng. This is the 
only time that a deep cultivation should be given. In the North, riding and 
walking cultivators are used, having an attachment of shallow running 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 




A Plant Ready to Set in Field. ^ 



TOBACCO 211 

plows, while in the Southern states single stocks with sweeps are mostly 
used. Cultivation usually ceases when the plants have received their 
final topping. As soon as the seed-head appears it should be taken out 
along with about three or four leaves Vidth cigar type tobaccos, while the 
heavy and export types are topped down to eight or ten remaining leaves, 
according to the growth of the plant and the style of leaf desired. The 
Maryland and Burley tobaccos have more leaves left on the plant after 
topping, but not as many as the cigar types. All types of tobacco will send 
out shoots or suckers after being topped, and these should be broken 
off, so that all the strength of the plant will go into the leaves on the 
main stalk. 

Tobacco is subject to insect pests from the time it germinates in the 
plant-bed to the time it is harvested. The flea beetle which lives on the 
young plants in the bed can be controlled by using kerosene and wood ashes. 
In the field the bud worm, horn worm and grasshopper destroy the leaves. 
These can be controlled by the use of Paris green, either applied dry mixed 
with cornmeal or ashes for the bud worm and in a solution at the rate of 
one pound of Paris green to 100 gallons of water, for the horn worm. More 
detailed instructions for controlling these pests will be found in the chapter 
on "Insect Pests." 

Methods of Harvesting. — Various methods are used in the different 
tobacco districts in harvesting tobacco. In the heavy and export districts 
the entire plant is cut. The stalk is first split down the middle about two- 
thirds its length ; then cut off close to the ground. The plant is then hung 
across a stick about four feet in length holding from six to eight plants, 
according to their size. When a stick is filled it is placed upon a wagon 
and taken to the curing barn. In the Burley and Maryland tobacco dis- 
tricts the plant is simply cut close to the ground and speared upon the stick, 
the stalk not being cut as in the former method. This method of harvesting 
is also used in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and to some extent in the 
New England states with the binder and filler grade of cigar leaf tobacco. 

For the cigar wrapper tobaccos of Florida, Georgia, Texas and the 
New England states, the leaves are picked off the growing plants as they 
ripen, beginning with the sand or bottom leaves. The leaves are placed in 
baskets and taken to the curing barn, where, by means of a needle, they are 
strung upon strings attached to sticks, each string holding about thirty- 
five leaves. The ends of the string are fastened to each end of the stick, 
which is then hung upon the tier poles in the barn where they remain 
until cured. The bright flue-cured tobaccos of North and South Carolina, 
also Virginia, are harvested by a similar method, differing in that the leaves 
are tied upon the string in pairs and sometimes in triplets instead of the 
individual leaves being strung upon the string bj^ means of a needle. 
Cigar leaf tobacco, harvested b}^ the priming or single-leaf method, will 
cure much quicker than when the whole plant is cut and will produce 
tobacco of more uniform color and finer texture; besides, there will be less 



>12 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



waste of the bottom leaves and every leaf can be harvested at the desired 
stage of ripeness. 

Bam Curing. — There are four methods of barn curing practiced: air 
curing, fire curing, flue curing and sun curing. All cigar leaf, Burley and 
Maryland smoking tobaccos are air cured. The tobacco, either primed or 
cut on the stalk, is hung upon the tier poles in the curing barn and there 
allowed to cure out by a gradual dying of the leaf tissues and evaporation 
of moisture. Favorable curing conditions exist when the tobacco will 
come and go ''in kase" several times during the period of curing. Barns for 
air curing are provided with ventilators which can be opened or closed 

according to the climatic con- 





ditions and the stage of the 
cure. For the first few days 
the barn should be kept closed 
until the tobacco has wilted 
and taken on a yellow shade of 
color; then the ventilators 
should be opened so as to ad- 
mit a free circulation of air 
until the tobacco assumes the 
brown color. During dry, 
windy weather the ventilators 
should be kept closed during 
the day and opened at night. 
The heavy and export 
tobaccos of Virginia, Tennessee 
and Kentucky are fire cured. 
As soon as the barn has been 
filled with green tobacco, small 
wood fires are started to wilt 
the leaf until the yellow color appears; then the amount of heat is grad- 
ually increased until the leaf turns brown. When the tobacco reaches this 
stage the heat is again increased to cure the midrib or stem of the leaf, 
after which the fires are allowed to die and the tobacco cool off. During 
the curing process the heat should never be allowed to fall until the 
final cure is obtained, as a fall of temperature during the curing process 
will injure the color and texture of the tobacco. Small log barns with 
tight walls are used for fire curing without any ventilation except the 
door. 

The briglit tobaccos of Virginia and North and South Carolina are 
cured by flues. The barns used in this process are similar to those used in 
the open fire process, except that the fires are built on the outside of the 
barn in brick fireplaces, having a metal flue running around the inside of 
the barn about two feet from the bottom. There are usually two fireplaces, 
the flues of each uniting at the opposite end of the barn, and merging into 



Fire-curing Barn. 



TOBACCO 



213 



a single return flue coming out at the same end of the barn as the fireplaces. 
Some barns have the two flues independent of each other, in which case 
both flues return to the front end of the barn. 

The tobacco, after being hung in the barn, is first given a low heat so 
as to wilt the leaf and produce the yellow color. The temperature is then 
rapidly increased so as to set the yellow color in the leaf and prevent the 
leaves turning brown. As soon as the color is set the temperature is again 
increased to cure the midrib, when the temperature is allowed to fall and 
the tobacco to cool off. Three days and nights is the usual time taken to 
cure a barn of tobacco by this 
process. 

The sun-curing process is 
similar to the air curing, the 
difference being that the to- 
bacco is allowed to wilt on 
scaffolds before being placed 
in the barn and when climatic 
conditions are favorable it is 
also sunned before being placed 
in the barn. This process gives 
the tobacco a delicate flavor 
when smoked in the pipe. 

Preparation for Market. 
— The first damp season after 
tobacco is cured is usually the 
best time to take it from the 
tier poles and prepare it for 
the market, especially with 
cigar leaf tobacco. At this 

time the tobacco is soft and pliable, and can be handled without injury to 
the leaf. The only grading done by the grower in preparing cigar leaf for 
the market is to separate the leaves into three groups, namely, sand or 
bottom leaves, middle leaves, and top leaves. Where the tobacco has 
been cured on the stalk the leaves are stripped off and tied into hands con- 
taining about forty leaves. Where the tobacco has been primed, or leaves 
picked off the stalk in the field, the cured leaves are simply bunched on 
the string and the string wrapped around the butt-end of the leaves. 
The tobacco is then packed in boxes and hauled to the packing house or 
kept in the barn until a buyer comes. 

With the heavy, export and bright tobaccos, the grower usually grades 
the tobacco into the commercial classes as sand lugs, lugs and wrappers, the 
finer classification being perform'ed by the buyer, who is usually a rehandler 
of tobacco. 

These tobaccos are packed in hogsheads and remain for some time in 
the warehouses to undergo an ageing process which mellows the tobacco 




Flue-curing Barn, Virginia. 



214 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

and brings out its best qualities. All cigar tobaccos have to go though a 
fermentation process, after which they are graded out according to color, 
texture and size. The tobaccos of Ohio, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania and 
certain grades of the New England tobaccos are packed in boxes, while the 
^^Tapper grades of Connecticut and Massachusetts are packed in mat 
bales weighing about 160 pounds. The cigar leaf tobaccos of the southern 
tobacco states are all packed in bales, either the Cuban or Simiatra style. 

Methods of Selling. — All cigar tobaccos are sold by the growler in their 
unfermented condition to dealers in leaf tobacco, who either buy the 
tobacco from the curing barn, or upon delivery by the grower at the ware- 
house. In some cases the tobacco is grown upon contract at a stipulated 
price per pound for the various grades. All transactions are upon a cash 
basis upon delivery of the tobacco. 

The heavy, export, manufacturing and bright tobaccos are sold at 
public auction, either in the hogshead or as loose tobacco. The place 
of sale is a public warehouse and all transactions are cash at the close of 
each auction. The sales are attended by buyers not only of this country, 
but of foreign governments where the regi system (government monopoly) 
exists; such countries as Spain, Italy, France and Japan having buyers 
attending these auctions. 

Danville, Virginia, is the largest market for loose tobacco, especially 
the bright tobaccos; while Richmond, Lynchburg and Petersburg, Virginia, 
handle mostly dark, fire-cured tobaccos. Public auctions are held at various 
places in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio and the Carolinas, 

REFERENCES 

"Tobacco Leaf." Killebrew and Myi-ick. 

"Tobacco: History, Cultm-e and Varieties." Billings. 

Kentucky Expt. Station Bulletin 129. "Cultivating, Curing and Marketing Tobacco." 

Kentucky Expt. Station Bulletin 139. "Tobacco Improvement." 

Ohio Expt. Station Circular 156. "Disinfecting Tobacco Beds from Root Rot Fungus." 

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 239. "Breeding Cigar Filler." 

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7. "Tobacco in Canada." 

U. S. Dept. of Agi'iculture Bulletin 40. "Mosaic Disease of Tobacco." 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

343. "Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky and Tennessee." 

416. "Production of Cigar Leaf Tobacco in Pennsylvania." 

523. "Tobacco Curing." 

571. "Tobacco Culture." 



CHAPTER 18 

Weeds and Their Eradication 

Weeds are the farmer's most active and persistent enemy. If he would 
keep them under control, he must wage a continual warfare against them. 
Seldom is there soil so poor that it will not grow weeds, and the richer the 
soil, the greater the weed crop. They seem to have been equipped by nature 
to hold their own in the struggle for existence, for they manage to thrive 
despite heat or cold, drought or flood. 

Some may ask: Why do weeds exist? They undoubtedly have a 
place in nature's great plan. They are her agents in restoring fertility to 
the soil. If unmolested they will cover the soil as a blanket, first as weeds, 
then as brush and finally as a forest. In fact, in some parts of our country, 
land is farmed until crops are no long(?r profitable, and then abandoned. 
Weeds then take possession, and by returning nitrogen to the soil, they 
become restorative agents. Give nature time enough and she will restore 
any land to its normal fertility. 

Damage Done by Weeds. — It is impossible to calculate the damage 
done yearly in the United States by weeds. Investigators roughly esti- 
mate it to be hundreds of millions of dollars. 

Weeds Reduce Crop Yields. — Weeds are more rapid of growth and 
more tenacious of life than cultivated plants. They crowd out the rightful 
occupants of the soil, depriving them of air and sunshine. Being more 
vigorous, they absorb from the soil the plant food that should be used by 
the crops, thus reducing the yield. A ton of dried pigweed contains as 
much phosphoric acid, twice as much nitrogen and five times as much 
potash as a ton of ordinary manure. 

Weeds also absorb moisture in greater quantities and more rapidly 
than crop plants. They are more drought resistant, for, having appro- 
priated all the moisture to themselves, they continue to thrive while the 
plant beside them dies. Experiments prove that some weeds transpire 
250 to 270 pounds of water to develop a pound of dry matter. 

In addition to this, it is a well-established fact that weeds exert an 
injurious effect upon crop yields by giving off from their roots substances 
which are poisonous to crop plants. 

Weeds cause a direct money loss by reducing land values. A would-be 
purchaser is not so apt to buy a farm where the fields are thickly covered 
with mustard, wild carrot or the ox-eye daisy. Naturally, the loss in value 
should be borne by the man who has allowed his land to be so abused. 

Weeds increase the expense of harvesting the crop. A field overrun 
with weeds calls for extra labor and entails extra strain on the machinery. 

23 (215) 



216 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

It sometimes necessitates hand labor, which is most expensive. Also the 
cost of threshing and cleaning the grain is increased by the presence of 
weed seeds. 

Mai'kct values are lessened by impure grain. Many crops are docked 
full half their value on account of noxious weed seeds. It is estimated that 
the State of Minnesota alone suffers a loss annually of over $2,000,000, 
because of weed seeds in the wheat. 

But the loss does not stop here. Some weeds harbor and encourage 
harmful fungi and insects. For example, the very common clubroot of 
cabbage thrives on the various members of the wild mustard family. 
Stubble overgrown with weeds harbors cut worms, beetles and other insect 
pests. Mildew, smut and rust are often transferred from friendly weeds 
to the grain crop. 

Furthermore, livestock and even human beings lose their lives as the 
result of eating poisonous berries or roots. The water hemlock or cow- 
bane is fatal to sheep and cattle. The deadly loco-weed on the western 
plains has caused tlie dc^itb of many horses and cattle. 

How Introduced and Spread. — Weeds are great travelers. They 
travel by means of the Avind and water. They are carried by birds, beasts 
and human beings. They are disseminated l)y means of manure, feedstuffs, 
machinery and grain seeds. 

Such weeds as the thistle, milkweed and the dandelion have downy 
plumes attached to each seed. The faintest breeze will carry them miles 
away, where they begin life anew. Members of the dock family have 
seeds supplied with Avings which enable them to float upon the water as 
well as upon the breeze. Some weed seeds have sharp barbs and stickers 
by which they attach themselves to the hair of animals and to the clothing 
of human beings, and are thus carried into new localities. 

AVhen it is known how many thousand seeds one weed-plant produces, 
it can readily be seen how great a calamity it is to let a weed bloom and go 
to seed. One thistle head contains enough seeds to start several thousand 
plants the next year. It is estimated that one wild mustard plant produces 
10,000 seeds, and one pigweed 115,000 seeds. If only a few of these seeds 
germinated, the situation would not be alarming, but the chances are that 
if allowed to seed a very high percentage of them will find opportunity to 
propagate their kind. 

One of the most prolific sources of weed dissemination is in the bu>^ng 
and sowing of impure seeds. Especially is this true of clover and grass 
seeds. In an analysis of several samples of commercial seed at one of the 
experiment stations, one sample of red clover seed was found to contain 
36,000 weed seeds to the pound. A pound sample of timothy seed contained 
79,000 weed seeds. 

Care should be taken to procure seeds only from uninfested districts. 
A farmer should have sufficient knowledge of seeds to enable him to detect 
impurities. It is a wise precaution to send first for samples of seed under 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 217 

consideration for purchase. If the farmer cannot determine with reasonable 
certainty as to their purity and germinating power, he should submit his 
sample to the experiment station of his state, that the weed seeds may be 
identified. These institutions gladly test samples of seeds for farmers free 
of charge. 

Careful screening will overcome much of the difficulty with weed seeds. 

Classification of Weeds. — It is not enough to know the name of a 
weed. In order to win in the struggle against a weed enemy, one must 
know its habits of life and its methods of propagation. There is no weed so 
vicious that it cannot be subdued or even entirely eradicated if its habits 
are understood. 

Weeds may be divided into three classes according to their life cycle : 
annuals, biennials and perennials. Annuals complete their growth and 
ripen seed in one season, such as wild mustard and ragweed. These weeds 
must depend upon seed in order to grow again the following year. It can 
readily be seen that if the plant is destroyed before seeds form, the source 
of next year's crop is much lessened. 

Unfortunately, some of these seeds are encased in an oily covering, 
enabling them to resist decay. Wild mustard seed, for instance, has such 
power of vitality that it has been known to germinate after having lain in 
the ground for many years. 

Biennials are not so easily disposed of. They require two years in 
which to complete their growth. Some of them have long tap roots in 
which they store up plant food during the first year. This food is used to 
produce seed during the second summer. Burdock and wild carrot are 
common examples of this class. These weeds are seldom seen in cultivated 
fields, for the plow and cultivator are disastrous to their roots. If these 
weeds are cut off even with the ground, they branch out and become 
thicker than before. Cutting two or three inches below the surface so as 
to destroy the crown of the plant is eiTective. 

Perennials grow year after year and produce seed indefinitely. Some 
of them reproduce by seed only, such as the ox-eye daisy and dandelion. 
Others have roots running under ground from which they send up new 
plants yearly. Common examples of this kind of weed are Canada thistle 
and bindweed. This class of weeds is the most difficult to eradicate, 
for wherever these roots are cut or bruised new stalks are sent forth 
and the difficulty increased. There is one time, however, during the 
growing season when these weeds are most effectively attacked; that is, 
when they are in full growth, but before seeds form. No plant can live 
long without a leaf system. If the plants are cut off and plowed under at 
this time, many of them will be eradicated. 

Repeated and persistent attacks, however, on the part of the farmer 
will be necessary for ultimate success. The poorer the land becomes, the 
greater the number of biennial and perennial weeds. They seem to be best 
adapted to the poor conditions and will thrive where other crops fail. 



218 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Weed Habitats. — ^Bindweed, Canada thistle and horse nettle are 
entirely at home in any field, whether it be corn field, meadow or feed lot. 
However, it is a well-established fact that certain weeds seem to follow 
certain crops. For instance, corn fields are mostly infested by such weeds 
as foxtail, cockle-bur and butter-print. These can be overcome by per- 
sistent cultivation. Milkweeds and the large family of mustards, of which 
shepherds' purse and wild radish are members, seem to follow the small 
grains. The mustard family is easily overcome bj" cutting before it goes 
to seed. The milkweed, however, is more difficult to eradicate, as it spreads 
by means of underground roots. Meadows and pastures have a different 




The Manner in which Canada Thistles Spread by Underground 

rootstocks.i 

When the rootstocks are brought to the surface by plowing at the right depth 
they may be raked up and destroyed. 



type of weed from corn and small grains. Three of the worst meadow 
weeds are dock, ragweed and buckhorn. They spread by seed only and 
can be kept down by mowing before they go to seed. The ground must 
also be kept well seeded to grass or clover, for if bare spots appear, the 
weeds are quick to appropriate them. Sorrel is a pasture weed which is 
hard to eradicate, as it spreads by means of underground roots. It cannot 
compete with red clover, however, for a place in the meadows. For this 
reason it is usually found in meadows where the acidity of the soil does not 
encourage red clover. Plowing and somng to cultivated crops is the best 
method of eradication. If the land will not admit of cultivated crops, 
common salt put on the plants will Icill them and keep them from 
spreading. 

Principles Governing Control. — The foregoing discussion suggests 

I Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 219 

the necessity of working out a system of farm management that will afford 
weeds the least opportunity to gain a foothold. The problem is not how to 
rid a farm of weeds, but how to prevent weeds in the first place. This can 
be solved by a system of cropping which takes into consideration the needs 
of the different fields as regards weed eradication. This phase of the 
problem has been discussed under the chapter on "Rotations." 

A few general principles for weed prevention and eradication are here 
given: 

1. Cut all weeds before seeding, if possible. 

2. Burn all weeds with mature seeds. Do not plow them under. 

3. Practice crop rotations. 

4. Sow clean seed. 

5. Watch for new weeds in your locality. If you can not identify 
them, send them to your experiment station for identification. 

6. See that the laws in your state dealing with control of weed plagues 
are enforced. 

A few of the most common weeds are here considered.* 

Canada Thistle. — The Canada thistle is a perennial of European origin, 
and is the most dreaded of all weed pests. It is a common weed of the 
northern half of the United States. The stems of Canada thistle grow 
from one to three feet tall ; they are much smaller and smoother than other 
thistles. The leaves are very spiny and the margin has a ruffled appear- 
ance. The upper side of the leaves is smooth and bright green in color, 
while the lower side is downy or hairy. The flowers are rather small, 
about one-half inch in diameter and of a rose-purple color. The Canada 
thistle flowers from June to September, maturing the first seed by the mid- 
dle of July. The seed is smooth and light-brown in color, measuring 
one-eighth of an inch in length. The seed is easily carried by the wind and 
is most commonly found in medimn red and alsike clover seed. 

Propagation. — The Canada thistle propagates by underground root- 
stocks as well as by seed. The underground rootstocks grow rather deeply 
in the soil and run parallel with the surface. They are the storehouse of 
the plants, and are capable of sending up young shoots for some time after 
the parent plant has been destroyed. This fact explains the persistency 
of the Canada thistle. As long as the plant is permitted to form green 
leaf es, it will manufacture plant food, which is stored in the rootstocks. 
As long as plant food is present in the rootstocks they are capable of sending 
up new plants, and will continue to thrive as long as they grow leaves at 
the surface. 

Control. — The Canada thistle occurs in all crops in the rotation, 
consequently no one method of control will be effective. The details of 
control had best be worked out for each particular condition. 

To thoroughly subdue the pest it is necessary to starve out the root- 



* Taken, with modifications, from The Pennsylvania Farmer, prepared by Professor Darst, of The 
Pemisylvauia State College. 



220 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



stocks by cutting off all green parts above ground. This requires destroy- 
ing the plants in some manner every week at first, and then every two weeks 
until the rootstocks die of starvation. 

In a small grain crop keep them cut with scythe or hoe, so as not to 
let them go to seed. After harvest the land should be plowed rather deeply 
and then worked down with the drag harrow. All roots harrowed out 
should be piled, dried and burned. The land sliould be disked regularly 
about every ten days, so as to destroy stray plants. In the late fall the 
land should be re-plowed, but not worked down, so as to exi30se the remain- 
ing roots to frost action. In the early spring 
the ground should be worked with a disk and 
a smother crop sown, such as oats and Canada 
field peas, millet or buckwheat. 

Canada thistles occurring in pastures must 
be cut out below the ground every ten days 
until starved out. After cutting the plants, 
it is well to pour a little kerosene on the stem 
and roots. Often spraying with strong con- 
centrated salt solution will be effective in 
l^astures and waste places. The spraying 
should be done tl oroughly and repeated when 
young shoots reappear. Spray materials 
should be applied under high pressure, and in 
a vapor spray, to be effective. 

After all, sprays used as a substitute for the 
scythe and mower will not kill the roots below 
the ground. 

When the thistle occurs in a cultivated 

crop, knives or sweeps should be used on the 

cultivator instead of the ordinary shovels. 

The sweeps will be more effective in cutting 

o& the plants. The thistles that grow within 

the row should be kept cut out wdth the hoe. 

Quack Grass. — Quack grass is perennial and propagates both by seeds 

and creeping underground rootstocks. The stems grow from one to two 

feet tall. The leaves are ashy green in color, rough on the upper side and 

smooth beneath. The plant flowers in June and seeds in July. 

The plant sends out underground rootstocks which are jointed, each 
joint capable of budding a new plant. Quack grass grows an enormous 
root system, which soon crowds and smothers out other plants. 

Control. — Quack grass may be subdued if no green leaves are allowed 
to develop. Since quack grass makes fair pasture, a good plan, where 
possible, is to pasture it close to the ground during the midsummer; then 
plow deeply in the early fall. The ground should be worked down immedi- 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 




The Canada Thistle 
{Circiuni arvense)} 
B — Seed enlarged. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 



221 




Quack Grass {Agropyron repens). 



ately with the spike-tooth harrow. This will drag out a great many of the 

roots. These should be dragged or 

raked to one end of the field, to be 

dried in piles and then burned. The 

ground should be plowed the second 

time, late in the fall. This should be 

done crossways of the first plowing. 

The ground should be worked down 

again with the harrow and as many of 

the rootstocks dragged out, piled and 

burned as possible. 

The next spring cultivation should 

begin as early as possible, the ground 

being worked every few days. Then a 

cultivated crop should be planted, 

preferably corn. The corn should be 

planted in hills so that cultivation 

can be given both ways of the field. 

The corn should be cultivated thor- 
oughly and a close watch kept for 

any stray quack grass which may come up. 
If there is any doubt as to whether 
the quack grass is completely killed, a 
mixture of hairy vetch and rye should be 
sown in the last- cultivation of the corn. 
This cover crop should be plowed down the 
next spring and a heavy seeding of millet 
sown. The cover crop and the millet fol- 
lowing the corn will surely smother out the 
last of the quack grass. 

A thick covering of straw or manure a 
foot or so thick and well packed down, will 
smother out the grass. It will take from 
two to three montlxs to smother out quack 
grass, as the roots remain alive for some 
time even though the tops above ground 
be dead. 

Foxtail. — The green and yellow foxtails 
are very similar in appearance and in habit. 
They are both annuals and propagate by 
seed alone, seeding from August to October. 
The yellow foxtail is a common weed all over the world, while the 

green foxtail is found mostly in North America. The seed of the foxtails 

are common impurities in many grass and legimie seeds. Once in the 




Green Foxtail {Getaria 
viridis) } 

1 — Concave side of seed. 
3 — Convex side of seed. 

Both enlarged. 



> Ppurtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



222 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



ground, they retain their vitaUty for many years, germinating only when 
brought near the surface of the ground. The stems of the foxtails grow 
from one to four feet tall. The leaves are three to six inches long and are 
rather wide, flat and smooth. The seed heads are from two to four inches 
long. The seed is yellowish-brown in color, about one-tenth of an inch in 
length and ovoid in shape. 

Control. — In grain fields the stubbles should be given surface cultiva- 
tion or, if the soil is dry enough, burning over will destroy the seeds that 
have fallen on the ground. 

In cultivated crops tillage should be continued very late, in order to 

prevent the development 
and distribution of seed 
from late-grown plants. 
Sheep may be turned in to 
graze down the aftermath 
of infested meadows. 

Dodders. — There are 
several kinds of dodders; 
those found in this 
country are known as 
c o m m o n dodder, field 
dodder, clover dodder and 
alfalfa dodder. 

They are annuals 
and propagate by seed, 
and are very pecuHar 
weeds because they live 
upon other plants. From 
their habit of growth they 
are known as parasites. 
The seeds of the 
dodder germinate in the soil and the young plants soon perish unless 
they come in contact with a clover or alfalfa plant. Once in contact 
with a suitable host plant, the roots of the weed soon decay. The fine 
yellowish and reddish stems twine about the host and spread from plant 
to plant; a single dodder plant often growing on several different host 
plants at the same time. 

This weed derives its nourishment by sending little suckers out into 
the stems of the plant on which it grows. Dodders appear lifeless to the 
casual observer as the leaves are reduced to mere scales. 

The white or pink flowers occur in clusters along the slender stems. 
During the latter part of summer the cluster may contain flowers in bloom 
and the matured seed at the same time. 

Small patches of dodder may result from a single seed. A patch can 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 




A B 

Field Dodder. Flax Dodder 

Seeds enlarged. 



Alfalfa Dodder. ^ 

Blossom of 
Alfalfa Dodder. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 



223 



be distinguished at quite a distance on account of its distinct yellowish 
cast. 

Dodder seed is very difficult to remove from clover and alfalfa seed. 

Eradication. — The first step in the control of dodder is to sow clean 
seed. Clover and alfalfa seed should be carefully examined for the pest 
before it is sown. 

When a field is badly infested the crop should be plowed under before 
the seeds form. Dodder seed, plowed 
under, may remain in the soil for seven or 
eight years and then germinate. After 
plowing, plant a cultivated crop for a year 
or two; as the weed is an annual, it yields 
readily to cultivation. 

When dodder occurs in small patches 
it may be successfully eradicated by dig- 
ging up the infested areas. To avoid scat- 
tering the seed, dry and burn the plants 
on the spot. 

The dried plants may be burned by 
covering them with straw or shavings 
soaked with kerosene. After the first 
burning, stir the surface with a rake, then 
burn over for the second time, so as to de- 
stroy any seed that may have matured and 
fallen to the ground. 

After a patch has been dug up, burned 
and re-seeded, it will be well to watch for 
stray plants which may come. If such 
plants appear, destroy them before flower- 
ing time. 

When dodder seed is allowed to 
mature in clover or alfalfa hay it should not be removed from the field, 
but should be dried and burned. 

Weed sprays are sometimes recommended for killing dodder in clover 
and alfalfa. The spraying should be done before or at blooming time in 
order to prevent the seed formation. A twenty per cent solution of iron 
sulphate is found effective on alfalfa fields. The spray will kill the parasite 
and apparently destroy the crop, but a new growth of alfalfa will spring 
from the roots as soon as the plant is relieved of the pesfc. 

Buckhom. — Buckhorn is a perennial of European origin. The weed 
propagates by seed, which matures any time from May to November. 
The plant has a short, thick root-stem which enables it to exist over winter. 
Buckhorn leaves are long and slender, borne in rosette-like clusters at the 
surface of the ground. The plant does not produce stoms as other weeds 




Buckhorn or Narrow-leaved 
Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) } 

B — Two times natural size of seeds. 



' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



224 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



commonly do, but sends up a stiff, slender flower stalk one to two feet long, 
at the end of which there is a short, compact head or spike. The figure 
shows the plant in bloom. After blooming, the heads elongate somewhat 
and turn a dark brown color. The seeds are shaped like a coffee grain, but 
very much smaller, measuring about one-tenth of an inch long. The seeds 
are a shiny amber to rich brown color. A dark-colored scar is present on 
the concave surface, while a narrow yellowish stripe is generally present 
on the back of the seed. 

Control. — Buckhorn is a very common and persistent weed in meadows, 

pastures and lawns. It is without doubt 
the most common of all weed seed in clover 
and alfalfa seed. In fact, it is very difficult 
to buy seed, even from the best of seedsmen, 
that is entirely free from this weed. The 
first step in controlling the weed on the farm 
is to sow nothing but clean seed. 

Where meadows and pastures are badly 
infested they should be plowed and a culti- 
vated crop grown for one or two years. By 
thorough cultivation and the use of hoes, all 
plants may be destroyed before going to 
seed. The seed remaining in the soil will 
be induced to germinate by frequent culti- 
vation, thus making it possible to rid a field 
of the pest in one or two seasons. 

Small areas in lawns may be controlled 
by cutting out with a spud or narrow-bladed 
hoe. This method is more effective during 
hot, dry weather. Buckhorn can be de- 
stroyed with carbolicacid without injuring or 
defacing the lawn. Stab each plant in the 
center, down to the fibrous cluster of roots, 
with a pointed stick and squirt into the opening a few drops of the acid 
with a common machine oil can. 

Plantain. — The common plantain is a very persistent weed in 
lawns and yards. The plant is a perennial and propagates by seed. Plan- 
tain does not produce a true stem as most other plants. The leaves, which 
grow in a tuft near the ground are large, coarse and oval in shape. The 
weed flowers from May throughout the summer and ripe seed may be found 
by July. 

The seeds are dark brown to black, slightly flattened, with acute 
edges. They are variable in shape, measuring one-twentieth of an inch in 
length. 

Control. — Conunon plantain when occurring in fields will yield readily 




Common or Broad-leaved 
Plantain {Plantago major). ^ 

B — Two times natural size of 
seeds. 



I Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 



225 



II 



to thorough cultivation. The control is the same as recommended for 
buckhorn. 

In lawns the most practical method of eradicating it is by hand 
digging. If the plant is cut off several inches below the ground during 
dry weather, it will give no more trouble. 

Carbolic acid may be used in the same manner as recommended for 
buckhorn, where digging roughens the lawn. 

Pigweed. — Pigweed is an annual and is commonly found growing in 
cultivated fields and waste places. While the weed itself is not hard to 
eradicate, yet it produces abundantly 
seeds which have long vitality. The seed 
has been known to survive in the ground 
for more than twenty years. 

The pigweed has a long, fleshy, red 
taproot. The main stem is erect, stout, 
woody and slightly branched. The stem 
and branches are covered with stiff, short 
hairs. 

Usually the plant will grow from one 
to four feet tall, but under more favorable 
conditions it will often reach six feet. 

The leaves are long and ovate in 
shape, measuring from three to six inches 
in length. The small greenish flowers 
are crowded into thick, compact heads 
which are borne at the ends of the 
branches or in the axils of the leaves. 
The pigweed flowers from July to Sep- 
tember and produces enormous quantities 
of small, shiny seeds. The seed is a jet 
black color, oval and flat in shape. It 
propagates by seeds only. 

Control. — Pigweed seed is commonly found in commercial seeds of 
different kinds. The first step in its eradication is to guard against buying 
seed containing this weed. 

Thorough cultivation will suppress the weed. In case cultivation 
cannot be continued late into the summer the weed should be pulled or cut 
out with a hoe before going to seed. Plants which are pulled or cut while 
blooming should be destroyed, as they frequently mature seed after cut. 

Pigweed may be destroyed in small grain crops by the use of the weeder 
or the spike-tooth harrow. By going over the grain field when the crop is 
but a few inches tall the small seedlings may be dug out without injuring 
the grain. If the weed makes its appearance later on in the growth of a 
small grain crop, it may be killed with an iron or copper sulphate spray. 




Pigweed {Amaranthus relroflexus) . 
C— Root. 



I Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



226 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



The spray to be effective must be applied before tlie grain begins to head 
and before the weeds bloom. 

Lamb's-Quarters. — Lamb's-quarters is sometimes known as smooth 
pigweed or white goosefoot. This weed is a ^^ery common annual through- 
out the world. It is commonly found in cultivated fields, orchards and 
gardens. 

Lamb's-quarters is distinguished by its upright grooved and many 
branched stem. The stems are often striped with purple. The plant is a 
rapid grower and attains a height of from two to four feet. The leaves are 
quite variable as to size and shape, the lower ones on the stock being com- 
paratively large and irregular, while the 
upper ones are rather small and narrow. 
The small greenish flowers are borne 
on the ends or in the axils of the branches. 
The entire plant presents a silvery gray 
or mealy appearance which distinguishes 
it from the true pigweed. The seed is 
about one-twentieth of an inch in diam- 
eter, lens-shaped and a dull black color. 
The seeds have long vitality, lying dor- 
mant in the soil for many years. 

The control of lamb's-quarters is 
similar to that of pigweed. In hoed 
crops the weed is very persistent and 
cultivation should be continued until late 
in the season. In gardens and other 
small areas the weed should be pulled or 
chopped out while young. 

Since the plants are very succulent 

while young, sheep may be used to 

pasture them where conditions M'ill per- 

Cultivation in the late summer or fall will germinate seed remaining 




Lamb's-Quarters, or Smooth 
Pigweed (Cheno podium album)} 

A — Root. 

B — Seed enlarged tliree times 
natural size. 



mit. 

in the soil which will eliminate the seed that may germinate the next 

year. 

Wild Mustard or Charlock. — The cruciferaj or mustard family con- 
tains a large number of weeds, of which the wild mustard and tumbling 
mustard are the most troublesome. The plants of this family may be 
recognized by the shape of the flowers, which consist of four petals arranged 
like arms of a cross. This character was used as the basis for naming the 
family. 

Wild mustard, because of its immense productiveness and the exceed- 
ingly long vitality of its seeds, is one of the most difficult weeds to dislodge. 

It is an annual plant, which in its earlier stages of growth bears some 
resemblance to the radish or yellow-fleshed varieties of the turnip. It 

> Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 



227 



produces erect branching stems from one to three feet in height which are 
somewhat roughened by short stiff hairs. 

The leaves are quite variable; the lower cnes are slender-stalked and 
deeply pinnatifid, forming one large terminal lobe with two to four smaller 
lateral lobes. 

The upper leaves are irregularly toothed, somewhat hairy and have 
very short petioles; the lobes are not very pronounced, while the terminal 
one is much narrower than the terminal lobe 
of the lower leaves. 

The plant flowers from June to September 
and mature seeds may be found as early as 
August. The bright yellow, fragrant flowers 
• which are about one-half inch in diameter are 
borne in elongated clusters at the end of the 
stem and branches. 

The flowers begin to open at the bottom of 
the cluster, which lengthens as the season 
advances, and the pods form and empty so that 
there may be emptied pods below and forming 
pods above. One of the pods may contain 
from four to twelve seeds. 

The round dark reddish-brown seeds are 
about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. 
They are a common impurity of grass and 
clover seeds. 

Wild mustard grows in all kinds of grain 
crops that are sown in the spring and usually 
matures its seeds before the grain in which it 
grows is ripe. Where spring grains are chiefly 
grown the contest with this weed will be a 
difficult one. 

Wild mustard is distributed by different 
agencies. Some of the small seeds are carried 
from place to place by the birds, but usually 
the weed finds its way to new centers in grain seed. The threshing 
machine is also a potent means of carrying it from farm to farm. 

It is further distributed over farms on which it grows by means of 
manures. It is also very frequentlj^ distributed by spring floods; when 
this is the case the farmer has a difficult job. 

Control. — Wild mustard seed is a common impurity of small grain, 
clover and alfalfa seed. The first step in its eradication is to avoid sowing 
seed containing the pest. As the seeds are small, they are easily removed 
from wheat, oats and barley by screening. Wild mustard is most common 
in gTain fields and generally disappears in grass and cultivated crops. 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 




Wild Mustard 
(Brassica arvensis) .' 

-Pod, natural size. 
-Blossom, one-third natu- 
ral size. 
-Seed enlarged four times. 



228 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



A good short rotation will in time reduce the seed in the soil. In 
grain fields, young seedlings may be harrowed out when the grain is but a 
few inches high. Later on the mustard may be destroyed by the use of 
iron sulphate or copper sulphate spray. Iron sulphate is probably the 
most efficient and cheapest spray. The spraying should be done before 
the grain heads are out and when the mustard is just beginning to flower. 
The spraying at this time will kill practically all the mustard with little 
or no injury to the grain. Spraying for weeds should be done on a bright, 
still day when there are no immediate prospects of rain. For spraying, 

use a solution made by dissolving 100 
pounds of iron sulphate in 52 gallons of 
water. This solution should be used at 
the rate of 50 gallons to the acre and put 
on at a high pressure of 100 or more pounds 
to the square inch. The spraying can be 
done at a cost of approximately $1.25 per 
acre. 

Shepherd's-Purse. — Shepherd's-purse 
is sometimes known as Case weed, St. 
James' weed and Mother's Heart. "With 
the exception of the chickweed, it is prob- 
ably the most common weed on earth," 
being found in all cultivated regions of the 
world. 

Shepherd's-purse is very prolific and 
its seeds have long vitality. This weed 
often harbors the club-root fungus, so 
common on cabbage, cauliflower, turnips 
and radishes, and will infect soil where 
those plants are cultivated. 

Shepherd's-purse is an annual, or 
winter annual. It is one of the first plants 
to make its appearance in the spring and it is not uncommon to find 
it making a good growth in March. 

The seeds, as a rule, germinate in the fall and form a rosette of leaves, 
close to the ground. From this rosette the following spring, arise the stems 
which vary from three inches to two feet in height. The leaves growing 
close to the ground are rather long and deeply cut, while those on the stem 
are small and arrow shaped. The small white flowers are borne in elon- 
gated heads or racemes. On the flowering stalks will be found all gradua- 
tions from a small bunch of flowers in bloom at the end, down to mature 
pods below. 

Shepherd's-purse is propagated by seeds only, which germinate either 
in the fall or spring. This weed flowers and produces seed throughout the 




Shepherd's-Purse 
(Capsella bursapastoris) .^ 

A — Enlarged seed pod. 
B — Enlarged seed. 



' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 229 

season. An average size plant will produce about 2000 seeds. The seeds 
are very small and covered with a transparent, mucilaginous material 
which preserves them in the soil for several seasons. 

Control. — Shepherd's-purse may be controlled in the field or garden 
by thorough cultivation and use of the hoe. 

In meadows or small grain fields the weed may be destroyed by spray- 
ing. Spray while the weed is still young, and if possible before it blooms. 
Seventy-five pounds of iron sulphate to fifty gallons of water is recom- 
mended as a good weed spray. The spray material should be applied under 
high pressure and in mist. It will take about fifty gallons to the acre. 

If one intends to spray weeds in pastures or small grain crops on a 
large scale, it will pay to purchase a weed sprayer, which is better adapted 
for the work and will be more effective and economical than ordinary 
sprayers. 

Weeds can be sprayed in grass fields, but not in alfalfa or clover 
fields, as the spray will kill the clover as well as the weeds. 

Peppergrass. — Peppergrass is a native of this country; an annual, 
and propagates b}^ seed. It seeds from June to October and will be found 
in small grains and clover fields. The seed is often found in timothy and 
red clover seed on the market. 

Peppergrass grows from six inches to two feet tall and is much 
branched. The weed sometimes becomes a tumble weed because of its 
spreading growth. 

The flowers are white and very small, borne on racemes or elongated 
heads. The seeds are formed in round but flattened pods. They are 
small, measuring about one-sixteenth of an inch in length. 

Birds are very fond of the seed and dispose of large quantities. 

Control. — The control is similar to that of shepherd's-purse. Care 
should be taken in plowing under plants that are nearly mature, since part 
of the seeds will germinate. 

Badly infested land should be planted to a cultivated crop and thor- 
oughly cultivated; thorough cultivation being all that is necessary to 
control the weed. 

Cocklebur. — Cocklebur is known by several other common names, 
i.e., ''Clotbur," "Sheepsbur," ''Buttonbur" and ''Ditchbur." This weed 
is an annual and native of this country. The plant is coarse, rough and 
branched, growing from one to four feet tall. The stems are angled and 
often reddish, spotted with brown. The leaves are broad, bristly rough on 
both sides and placed alternately on the stems. 

Cocklebur bears the male and female flowers at different places on the 
plant. The male flowers are borne above and near the end of the main 
stem, while the female flower clusters are borne below in the axils of the 
leaves. 

The seeds of the cocklebur are borne in reddish-brown, two-peaked 
burs which are covered with stout hooked prickles. Each bur contains 



230 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



two seeds. It is claimed that one of the two seeds germinate the first year 
and the other the following year, thus insuring at least seed for two years. 
Control. — Clean cultivation and the rotation of crops are recommended 
for this obnoxious weed. Infested corn fields should be put into a small 
grain crop, followed by clover or grass. The harvesting of these crops will 
kill or behead the weed before it has time to grow much or develop burs. 
Plants that have formed burs should be cut, raked and burned. 

Field Bindweed or Wild Morning Glory. — It is most commomy found 

in grain fields, meadows and waste places. 
"It is a most obnoxious weed, spreading 
chiefly by means of its long, creeping, cord- 
like roots, which at any part of their length 
may bud new plants." Small bits of the 
roots may be broken off and carried quite 
a distance [by a cultivator and produce 
new plants. 

"The stems are smooth, slightly 
angled, slender, one to three feet long, twin- 
ing about and over any plants within 
reach," tending to smother them. The 
leaves are cordate or heart-shaped, one to 
one and one-half inches long, with back- 
ward pointing lobes at the base. The 
flowers are pink, sometimes nearly white, 
funnel-shaped, about one inch in diameter 
at the mouth of the tube. 

This plant is propagated by seed and 
the underground fleshy root-stocks. It 
flowers from June throughout the summer 
and mature seed may be found in July. 
The seeds, which are borne* in globular, 
CocKUE,-B\j-R {Xanthium canadense) .^ two-celled capsules, are dull, dark brown, 
A— Bur two-thirds natural size, about one-eighth inch long, rough, oval, 

with one side flat and the other rounded. 
Control. — If the land is planted to crops that can be cultivated very 
often throughout the growing season, field bindweed can be completely 
eradicated in two years. 

When this weed grows in pastures and waste places, its growth may be 
checked by allowing sheep to have access to the places where it grows. Three 
years of pasturing with a large number of sheep will gr3atly weaken this 
pest, if not kill it entirely. 

Infested land should be plowed in the late summer after a crop has 
been removed and hogs which have not been ringed turned in for the 
purpose of turning out and eating the succulent roots, of which they are 

' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 




WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 



231 



very fond. If hogs are again turned into the field as soon as possible in 
the spring and left until planting time the weed will be considerably 
weakened in vitality. 

Hedge Bindweed. — This weed is very similar to field bindweed and 
about as hard to eradicate; its rootstocks are larger and not so difficult 
to remove from the soil. The trailing or 
twining stems are three to ten feet or more 
in length and have the same method of 
destroying other plants. The leaves are 
smooth, long, triangular and pointed at the 
end instead of rounded as the field bindweed. 
The base of the leaves forms pointed lobes. 
The funnel-shaped flowers are about two 
inches long, pink with white stripes or clear 
white. They are borne singly on slender 
flower stocks in the axils of the leaves. 
The seed capsules are globular and may 
contain four seeds, but often only three are 
fertile; the dark-brown, kidney-shaped 
seeds are angular and about one-eighth inch 
long. They retain vitality for several years. 

Control. — The rootstalks should be 
starved persistently by the frequent cutting 
of the stems. The weed loves the mellow 
soil of a cornfield. If the land is planted 
to corn, this will mean that as soon as the 
corn is too large to be cultivated by a 
cultivator the field should be gone over 
with a hoe and all young shoots cut off as 
soon as they make their appearance. 
Keeping them cut prevents the pest from 
maturing seed and leaves to re-stock the 
underground storehouse with food for 
another year. 

Fifty Worst Weeds. — The following table gives an alphabetical list 
of the fifty worst weeds of the United States, with such information as will 
enable the reader: (1) to identify them; (2) to determine the nature and 
place of their greatest injuriousness; (3) to determine their duration or 
natural length of life, that is, whether annual, biennial or perennial; and 
(4) some methods of eradication. With this knowledge one will be able to 
attack much more intelligently any troublesome weed. 




Field Bindweed 
(Convolvulus arvensis) .^ 

After F. S. Matthews in Manual 
of Weeds, by Ada E. Georgia. 



' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



24 



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236 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



REFERENCES 

"A Manual of Weeds." A. E. Georgia. 

"Farm Weeds of Canada." Clark. i 

"Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden." Long and Percival. 

"Weeds and How to Eradicate Them." Shaw. 

North Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 112. "Fertility and Weeds." 

Canadian Dept of Agriculture Bulletin 188. "Weeds of Ontario." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 257. "Weed Factor 

in Corn Cultivation." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

306. "Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds." 

334. "Weed Seeds in Feeding-stuffs and Manure." 

368. "Eradication of Bindweed or Wild Morning Glory." 

464. "Eradication of Quack Grass." 

545. "Controlling Canada Thistles." 

610. "Wild Onion: Methods of Eradication." 

660. "Weeds, How to Control Them." 



PART II 
DISEASES OF FARM CROPS 



(237) 



CHAPTER 19 

Diseases of Farm Crops and Their Remedies 

By Dr. Mel. T. Cook 
Plant Pathologist, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station 

When any of the various parts of a plant are not doing their work 
properly the plant is said to be diseased. The disease frequently causes 
poor growth or poor fruit, or both; and in case of oiu: cultivated plants, an 
unsatisfactory crop. 

The most important causes of plant diseases are fungi, bacteria, slime 
moulds, parasitic flowering plants, insects, mites, nematodes, unsatisfactory 
soil, too much or too small amount of moisture, unfavorable temperature, 
gas fumes and smoke. Some plant diseases occur for which there are no 
satisfactory explanations. 

Plant cUseases may be detected by characteristic symptoms which 
readily distinguish the disease upon the healthy plants. The most common 
of these symptoms are: (a) a discoloration of the foliage and sometimes 
of the new growths; (6) wdlting, frequently followed by yellowing and 
browning; (c) dropping of the foliage; (c/) the formation of spots on foliage, 
stems or roots; (c) perforation of the foliage commonly called "shot hole;" 
(/) variegation of the foliage commonly called mosaic; {g) the ''damping 
off" or dying which is especially common on seedling plants; Qi) the bhght 
or dying of leaves, twigs or stems; {i) the dwarfing of parts; {j) the increase 
in size of parts; (/;) formation of galls, pustules or corky growths; (I) 
cankers on fruit, stems or roots; (m) abnormal fruits; (w) the formation 
of masses of small shoots called "witches' brooms;" (o) the curling of leaves; 
(p) the formation of leaf rosettes; (g) abnormal root growths commonly 
known as hairy root; (r) exudations of gums, resins, etc.; (s) the rotting of 
fruit, stems or other parts; and {t) sunburn of fruits and foliages. 

Some diseases of the soil, such as "damping off," are very severe in 
seed-beds and in greenhouses, and can be controlled by sterilizing the soil. 
Diseases that occur in the soil in fields are frequently overcome by a rota- 
tion of crops, by improved drainage and sometimes by stimulating the 
plants with suitable fertilizer. 

Many diseases are controlled by spraying, but in most cases spraying 
is used for the protection of plants against disease and not for curing them ; 
therefore, it is a kind of insurance and must always be supplied in advance 
of the appearance of the disease. Spraying cannot be conducted in a 
satisfactory mannex unless the grower is sufficiently familiar with the disease 

239 



240 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 




:M 




to understand when, why and how to give the necessary treatments. In 

recent years it has 
been found possible 
to overcome some 
diseases by growing 
plants that are dis- 
ease-resistant and, 
therefore, do not 
need treatments. 

In this chap- 
ter only the most 
common and im- 
portant plant dis- 
eases in the United 
States and Canada 
are considered. 
Brief descriptions 
and condensed di- 
rections for treat- 
ment are given. 

Farmers should 
always report the 
presence of disease 
on crops to the 
agricultural experi- 
ment station of the 
state in which they 
reside, and ask ad- 
vice as to treat- 
ment. The treat- 
ment of some dis- 
eases will vary 
somewhat, depend- 
ent upon the part 
of the country in 
which it occurs. 

The annual 
losses occasioned by 
insects to farm 
products are enor- 
mous and demand 
the attention of all 
farmers. 







Anthracnose op Bean.i 

The brown spots occur on both the pods and plants. They 
are caused by spores coming in contact with the tender plant 
tissues, where they germinate and give rifse to serious damage. 



Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 255. 



DISEASES OF CROPS 241 

BEAN 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum [Sacc. and Magn.], B. 
and C). — This disease is most severe on the wax beans. It occurs on 
the pods, causing unsightly, dark-colored, sunken, canker-like spots. It 
also attacks the leaves and stems, producing similar spots and frequently 
causing the death of the plants. The fungus is carried in the seed and one 
diseased seed in a thousand is enough to infect a large number of growing 
plants. 

Treatment. — Select clean seed. 

Rust {Uromyces ajypendiculatus [Pers.], Link). — This fungTis causes 
minute rusty spots or blisters on the under surface of the leaves and 
occasionally on the pods. These blisters break and set free great quan- 
tities of the reddish or rust-colored spores. It is not so severe as the 
anthracnose. 

Treatment. — Practice clean cultivation and burn all old vines in the 
fall. 

Blight (Pseudomonas phaseoli, Smith). — This disease attacks leaves, 
stems and pods, causing large watery areas, which later become dry, brown 
and papery. It is carried from year to year in the seed. 

Treatment. — Use seed from healthy plants. 

Downy Mildew (Phytophthora phaseoli, Thaxt.). — This disease is 
unlike the mildew on the fruits. It attacks the pods of lima beans, causing 
irregular areas of dense, woolly-white growth. It also occurs on other 
parts of the plant, causing dwarfing and irregular growths. 

Treatment.- — ^Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta sp.). — This disease is most severe on the pole 
lima beans. It causes an irregular spotting of the leaves and to some 
extent of the pods. It is carried from season to season in the seed. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

PEA 

Spot {Ascochyta pisi, Lib.). — This disease causes spots on stems, 
leaves and pods which are most conspicuous on the latter. On the pods 
they are circular, sunken with dark borders and pale centers, becoming 
pink when mature. The spots on the leaves are oval and usually show 
concentric circles. When severe on the stems it causes wilting and death 
of the plant. 

Treatment. — Select clean seed and rotate crops. 

BEET 

Leaf Spot (Cercospora heticoln, Sacc). — This fungus causes the very 
common circular, brown, purple-bordered spots with ash-colored centers. 

Treatment. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will control this dis- 
ease. 



242 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Root Rot {Rhizodonia beta, Kuhn). — This disease causes the outer 
leaves to turn black and fall. The roots crack and then rot. 
Treatment.— Use lime and rotate crops. 

CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP, ETC. 
Black Rot (Pscudomonas campestris, Panimel). — This is a bacterial 

disease which attacks 
all of the above and 
many related plants. 
It starts at the edges 
of the leaves, causing 
a blackening of the 
veins, gradually work- 
ing downward to the 
main stalk and then 
upward and outward 
until the entire plant is 
affected. The affected 
leaves become yellow, 
wilt and then dry. In 
advanced stages the 
disease is accompanied 
by other rot organisms 
which cause a pro- 
nounced odor. 

Treatment. — When 
once in the soil it is 
extremely difficult to 
eradicate. Prevent in- 
fection by using clean 
seed, which as a pre- 
cautionary measure 
should be soaked for 
fifteen minutes in for- 
maldehyde (1 part for- 
malin to 30 parts 
water) . 

Club Root or Fin- 
ger and Toe Disease 
{Plasmodiophora hrassica?, Wor.). — This very destructive and well-kno-sTO 
disease attacks cabliage and related plants, causing unsightly knotted 
roots. The diseased plants are dwarfed and fail to develop heads. 

Treatment. — Use nothing but absolutely clean soil in the seed-beds; 
use lime in the fields; rotate crops. 

' From Farmers' Bulletin 488, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 




Enlarged Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes.' 



DISEASES OF CROPS 243 

CARROT 
Soft Rot (Bacillus carotovorus, Jones). — This is a bacterial disease 
which causes a soft rotting of the roots. It also attacks turnips, radishes, 
parsnips, onions, celery, beets and many other plants. The only satis- 
factory treatment lies in the rotation of crops. 

POTATO 

Late Blight or Downy Mildew (Phytopthora infestans [Mont.], De 
By.). — This disease usually starts near the tip or margin of the leaf, but 
causes the infected area to die and blacken. In cool, wet, cloudy weather 
it spreads very rapidly and causes an offensive odor. The diseased tubers 
may show slightly depressed, dark-colored areas and a dirty brown color 
within. The disease is frequently the cause of heavy losses by rotting. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the plants 
are about six inches in height and repeat about every two or three weeks 
throughout the growing season. 

Early Blight (AUernaria solani[E. and M.], J. and G.). — This disease 
appears earlier in the season than the late blight. It causes brown, brittle, 
irregular, more or less circular leaf spots with rather definite concentric 
circles. These spots frequently unite and the plant dies very much as 
though from natural causes. 

Treatment. — Same as for late l^light. 

Wilt, Stem Rot and Dry Rot (Fusarium oxysporum,, Schlecht). — The 
plant assumes an unhealthj^ appearance, the leaves roll and curl and the 
plant falls and dies prematurely. The stems are partly or entirely black and 
dead near the base and frequently show a white or pink mould. When 
stems are cut across below the ground they show discolorations just below 
the surface. This field form of the disease is known as " wilt " or " stem rot." 

In storage the tubers undergo a "dry rot" beginning at the stem end, 
which causes them to shrivel and become light in weight. When cut 
across, these tubers show black discolorations just below the surface. The 
disease can be carried on the seed and will also persist in the soil. 

Treatment. — Select seed potatoes which are fi-ee from surface cankers 
and are perfectly white when cut. When the soil becomes infected use 
rotation of crops for from three to five years. 

Black Leg {Bacillus phytophthorus, Appel). — This disease causes the 
plants to be dwarfed, erect, pale in color and to die early. The stems 
become brown or black near the ground and the disease works downward. 
It is carried in the seed. 

Treatfnent. — Soak the seed in formaldeh^^le or corrosive sublimate as 
recommended for potato scab. 

Scab (Oospora scabies, Thaxt.). — This well-knowai disease is readily 
recognized by the rough, pitted character of the tubers and is the cause of 
heavy losses. It can be carried on the seed and will persist in the soil for 
several years. 



244 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Treatment. — Soak the seed potatoes for two hours in formaldehyde 
(1 pound in 30 gallons of water) or in corrosive sublimate (4 ounces in 30 
gallons of water) for one and one-half hours. When the land becomes 
infected, avoid the use of stable manure and lime, and rotate crops for 
three to five years. 

Little Potato, Rosette, Stem Rot, Scurf (Rhizoctonia or Cortidum 
vagum, B. and C, var. solani, Burt.). — This disease assumes different forms, 
varying with the climatic conditions, soils and varieties. In very severe 
cases many of the young plants fail to get through the ground. Many 
that do get through are dwarfed and show a peculiar crinkling of the 
foliage. The part of the stems below ground shows peculiar brownish 
or black cankers. 

Treatment. — Soak seed potatoes in corrosive sublimate as recom- 
mended for scab. 

Bacterial Wilt {Bacillus solanacearum, Smith). — The plants wilt 
prematurely, become yellow, then black and dry. This disease attacks 
tomatoes, tobacco, peppers and eggplants. 

Treatment. — Rotate crops, avoiding those that are susceptible. 

Tipbum. — ^This disease is due entirely to hot, dry weather. It causes 
the leaves to dry at the tips and margins, roll up and break off. 

Note. — -There are a number of other diseases of the potato which 
cannot be included in this brief discussion. 

PEANUT 

Peanuts are subject to several foliage and root diseases of more or 
less importance. Growers of this crop should consult with their state 
agricultui'al experiment station. 

TOBACCO 

Granville Tobacco Wilt {B. solenacerarum, Smith).— This is due to the 
same organism as the wilt of the potato, tomato, peppers and eggplants. 
(See Potato.) 

Mosaic, Calico or Mottle Top. — The cause of this disease is still some- 
what uncertain. The leaves of the diseased plants show dark and light 
areas and frequently irregular thickenings or twistings. 

Treatment. — Remove the diseased plants. Be careful not to touch 
healthy plants while working with the diseased plants. The disease can 
be communicated by contact. 

Leaf Spots. — There are a number of leaf spot diseases and also mildews 
which cause more or less trouble. 

Root Rots (Thielavia hasicola, Zopf.). — This disease is a rotting of 
the roots, accompanied by the production of numerous new roots. The 
affected plants are dwarfed and frequently killed. 

Treatment. — Sterilize seed-bed. Rotate crops. Avoid liming and 
acid fertilizers. 



DISEASES OF CROPS 



245 



CORN 



Smut (Ustilago Zeae [Beclon.], Ung.). — Corn 




Smut op Corn.'- 
Showing a young smutted ear. 

sistant varieties should bo used and if possible 
sown early. 

Loose Smut {Ustilago tritici [Pers.j, Jens.)-- 
familiar disease is the cause of much greater loss 

Treatment. — It can be controlled by treating 

I From Farmers' BuUetin 507, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. 



smut on ear, tassel and 
leaves is so common 
that it is not necessary 
to give a description. 
It is frequently very 
destructive, especially 
on sweet corn. 

Treatment. — ^The 
treatment will depend 
largely on the severity 
of the disease. Do 
not use manure from 
anhnals which have 
been fed en smutted 
cornf odder. Rotate 
crops. If growing 
sweet corn on the 
same land year after 
year, it is advisable to 
remove the smut balls 
as soon as they appear. 

WHEAT 
Rust {Puccinia 
graminis, Pers., P. 
rnbigovera, Wint.). — 
This crop is affected 
with the familiar rust 
diseases, all of which 
appear to be very 
much the same to the 
inexperienced student 
of plant diseases. 
They are very difficult 
to control and in fact 
comparatively little 
effort is made to pro- 
tect the crop. Re- 
spring whea.t should be 

-This very common and 
than the growers realize, 
with hot water. Clean 




Loose Smut of Wheat, i 

Showing four smutted heads of various stages of development, and for comparison 

a sound wheat head. 



'From Farmers' Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



(246) 



DISEASES OF CROPS 



247 



the seed and soak for five to seven hours in water at a temperature of 63° 
to 72° F. Then put into loose bags or wire baskets holding about one peck 
each and plunge into water ranging between 126° and 129° F. for ten min- 
utes. Care should be taken 




Smut op Oats.^ 

Showing a smutted head, and for comparison 
a sound oat head. 



Jens.l 



to keep the water at the 
proper temperature and to 
keep the grain well stirred. 
The seed can be dried on a 
barn floor or canvas. 

Stinking Smut or Bunt 
(TiUetia faians [B. and C], 
Trek). — This disease is very- 
different frcm the loose smut. 
The diseased grains are shriv- 
eled, greenish tinted, filled 
with a mass of black spores 
and have a disagreeable 
odor. Badly infested crops 
are worthless for milling or 
for stock feed. 

Treatment. — Put one 
pound of formaldehyde in 
fifty gallons of water and 
sprinkle on the grains at the 
rate of one gallon to each 
bushel of grain. Shovel the 
wet grain into a pile and 
cover with canvas or burlap 
for six to twelve hours. 
Spread and dry. (See Chap- 
ter on Wheat.) 

OATS 
Rust (Puccinia coronata, 
Cda.). — ^Also the two species 
found on wheat. 

Treatment. — Same as for 
wheat. 
Very similar in appearance to the 



Smut ( Ustilago avena [Per 
loose smut of wheat. 

Treatnmit. — Formaldehyde treatment same as for stinking smut of 
wheat. ' 



iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agiicultur 



248 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



SUGAR CANE 

Red Rot {CoUctotrichum falcniiwi, Went,). — This is one of the most 
destructive diseases of the sugar cane. It causes the plants to wilt and 
finally a yellowing of the upper leaves. This is followed by a blackening 
and dying of the eyes and a gradual discoloration on the outside extending 
from the nodes. Upon splitting the canes, the fibro-vascular bundles are 
found to show reddish discolor- 
ations. 

Rind Disease {TricJiosphae- 
ria sacchari, Massee). — Although 
this disease is not so severe as the 
preceding one, it causes a prema- 
ture yellowing and dying of the 
plants. The joints become dis- 
colored and shrunken and the 
entire plant loses weight. Finally, 
small black eruptions which are 
thread-like in api^earance appear 
over the canes. 

The Pineapple Disease 
(Thiclaviopsis ethacefica, Went.). 
■ — -This disease is of comparatively 
little importance, but it some- 
times attacks the cuttings which 
have been prepared for planting 
and prevents their growth or 
causes weak, unhealthy plants. 

Treatment. — The most satis- 
factory treatment for these three 
diseases is care in selection of 
good healthy plants for cutting 
and the treatment of these cut- 
tings with Bordeaux mixture 
before planting. 

When the grower has any 
reason to suspect the appearance 

of these or other diseases, he should consult with the plant pathologist of 
the experiment station in the state in which he is located. 

Other Diseases. — There are a number of other diseases of minor 
importance. 

COTTON 
Anthracnose {Golmerella gossypii, Southworth Edg.)- — This disease 
attacks stem, boll and leaves, causing dull, reddish-brown spots which aiQ 

iCourtesy of Bureau of Plaut Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 




A Young Cotton Plant Affected by 
Cotton Wilt.i 



DISEASES OF CROPS 249 



slightly depressed. In advanced stages these spots are covered with a 
dirty gray or pinkish powder which is the spores of the fungus. This 
disease is carried in the seed and is the cause of heavy losses. 

Damping Off, Sore Shin, Seeding Rot. — These diseases may be due to 
any one of several organisms. They attack the young plants at or just 
below the surface of the ground, causing them to rot off and die. They are 
sometimes the cause of heavy losses. 

There are a number of other diseases of the cotton. The most satis- 
factory remedy for most diseases is the selection of seed from healthy 
plants. Where growers experience much difficulty, they should consult 
with the authorities at the state agricultural experiment station. 

FLAX 

Wilt {Fusarium lint, Bolley). — This is one of the most severe diseases 
of the flax. Sometimes the organism causing this disease is so abundant 
in the soil that it leads to the term " flax sick soil." The new plants affected 
with this disease wilt and die and fields are very frequently seen in which 
there are large bare spots due to the ravages of this disease. When the 
older plants are attacked they wilt and gradually turn yellow and die. 

The grower who has any difficulty with this or other diseases should 
consult with the state agricultural experiment station. 

REFERENCES 

"Diseases of Tropical Plants." Cooke. 

"Fungous Diseases of Plants." Duggar. 

"Spraying of Plants." Lodeman. 

"Minnesota Plant Diseases." Freeman. 

"Diseases of Economic Plants." Stevens and Hall. 

Michigan Expt. Station (Technical Bulletin 20). "Control of Root Knot Nematode." 

Olaio Expt. Station Bulletin 265. "Cob Rot of Corn." 

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 136. "Collar-Blight and Related Forms of Fire 

Blight." 
Washington Expt. Station Bulletin 126. "Bunt or Smut of Wheat." 
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 229. "Smuts and Rusts." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 

64. "Potato Wilt and Other Diseases." 

203. "Field Studies of the Crown Gall of Sugar Beets." 

216. "Rust of Grain in United States" (Bureau of Plant Industry). 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

333. "Cotton Wilt." 

507. "The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley and Corn." 

544. "Potato Tuber Diseases." 

555. "Cotton Anthracnose and Rs Control." 

618. "Leaf Spot: A Disease of the Sugar Beet." 

625. "Cotton Wilt and Root Knot." 

648. "The Control of Root Ivnot," 



CHAPTER 20 

Insect Pests and Their Control 

By W. B. Wood 
Scientific Assistant, Bureau of Entomologij, U. S. De-parUnent of Agriculture 

Insects are, without doubt, the greatest enemies of the farmer, for they 
destroy the crops of field and garden and render the fruit on the trees unfit 
for use; they injure the domestic animals by constant irritation, causing 
them to lose weight and even to die. Stored grains, tobacco and other 
farm products also suffer from their attacks. 

After studying their life histories and habits, methods of control have 
been devised by which they can be combated with a reasonable amount of 
success. Many species can be held in absolute control by thorough and 
timely applications of the proper remedies, while others are only partially 
held in check. 

In order to intelligently apply a treatment for the control of an insect, 
something of its habits must be known, especially in regard to its manner 
of feeding. Most of the important pests fall within two great groups, 
namely, biting or chewing insects and sucking insects, depending on 
whether the mouth parts are chisel or pincher-like in the first class, or 
beak-like and made for piercing and sucking in the second class. A 
number of these pests will fall in certain special groups which require a 
definite treatment, indicated by their manner of living or by the injury they 
do. Some of these special classes are internal feeders, as boring insects, 
subterranean insects and insects affecting stored products. 

The external feeders, which have biting mouth parts, usually feed upon 
plants by gnawing out small pieces of the plant tissue which are swallowed. 
This group includes the larvae or caterpillars of moths and butterflies, the 
larva? of beetles and the adults, grasshoppers and crickets, and the larva? of 
some species of Hymcnoptera or the wasp group. Such insects may usually 
be controlled by applying a poison to the plant, either as a fine spray or as 
a powder dusted or blown over it« surface. The arsenicals have been found 
to be the best remedy for this group. 

The sucking insects feed by piercing the skin or epidermis of plants 
wth their sharp beaks and sucldng the sap. This group of insects is 
represented by the tree bugs or Hemiptera, to which order belong the 
squash bug, scale insects, plant lice and leaf hoppers. It is evident that a 
stomach poison on the surface of the plant would not affect insects of this 
class, so it is necessary to use what is known as a contact insecticide, which 
should be applied as a spray or wash directly to the insect's body. Such 

(250) 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 251 

remedies kill by their suffocating or corrosive action. The most common 
of these insecticides are nicotine solutions, kerosene or oil emulsions, lime- 
sulphur wash and fish-oil soap. 

In the following pages -udll be found listed the principal insect pests of 
farm crops under the class of crops to which they are most injurious. Only 
a verj' brief description of each insect can be given, and in most cases noth- 
ing of their life histories, in the limited space devoted to the subject. The 
treatments which have given the best results in each indi\idual case are 
indicated briefly and reference is made to publications which give a more 
extended account of the insects. The abbreviations which are used in the 
references are as follows: 

Bur. Ent. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Bulletin. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. — U. S. Department of Agi-iculture, Bureau of Entomology Circular. 
Farm. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin. 
Dept. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin. 

GENERAL CROP INSECTS 

Caterpillars (^leaf- eating). — ]Many plants are attacked by caterpillars 
which feed upon the leaves. These worms are the larvse of Lepidopterous 
insects, or moths and butterflies. 

Treatment. — Spray with an arsenical, preferably arsenate of lead, or 
dust ^dth powdered arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the spray gathers 
in drops and does not adhere well to the surface of the leaves, use a resin 
fish-oil soap sticker. 

Cutworms. — Various species of the family Noctuidce, usually feeding 
at night upon the roots, crowns or foliage of plants. The worms may be 
found in da^-time \ymg curled up in ground about an inch below surface. 

Treatment. — Broadcast poison bran mash about the garden in the 
spring just before the plants come up. ]Make other applications later if 
the cutworms are still found. Cultivate the ground thoroughly in late 
summer and early in the spring to prevent the growth of grasses and weeds, 
thus starving out worms if present. 

Grasshoppers or Locusts. — A number of species feed on corn, wheat, 
sorghum and other field crops, also on man}'- garden crops and at times on 
fruit trees. 

Treatment. — Cultivate the fields and stony fence rows in the fall to 
break up the egg masses deposited one to two inches below the surface of 
the ground. Broadcast Criddle mixture or poison bran mash flavored with 
juice of orange or lemon in fields where grasshoppers are plentiful. 

Leaf Beetles (Chrysonielidce). — Crops of many kinds are injured by 
beetles which feed upon the leaves as adults and sometimes as larvae. 

Treatment. — Spray or dust the affected plants "oath arsenicals. 

Plant Lice {Aphididce). — Manj-^ species of plant lice are found attacking 
field, garden and orchard crops. They feed by sucking the juices of the 
host plant and cannot be controlled by a poison spray. 



252 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Treatment. — Use sprays of nicotine or tobacco extract, kerosene 
emulsion (5 to 10 per cent strength) or fish-oil soap just after the aphids 
appear and at such other times as may be necessary. Spray thoroughly, 
being sure to wet all plant lice. If spray does not adhere to the bodies of 
insects, add 2 or 3 pounds of laundry soap to 50 gallons of spray solution, 
or preferably an equal amount of resin fish-oil soap as a sticker. For under- 
ground forms practice rotation of crops or use soil fumigants. 

White Grubs (Lachnosterna spp.). — White grubs or grubworms are 
the larvse of the common brown beetles known as May beetles or June 
bugs, commonly seen around lights and on the screens in the spring and 
summer. Their natural breeding place is grass lands, but they are found 
in fields and gardens feeding upon the roots of many plants. 

Treatment. — No successful treatment is known. Practice crop rotation 
when necessary. Fall plo^ving wall be of some benefit. Do not plant 
crops liable to be injured, as strawberries, on recently broken sod land. 

Wire Worms {Elateridcc) . — Slender, brown, hard, shining larvse, 3^ 
inch io IY2 inches long, body divided into several segments which show 
plainly three pairs of small legs near front end of body. Their natural 
breeding place is grass lands, but they feed on or in the roots of many 
garden and field crops. Two years or more are required for development. 

Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment has been found. Rotation of 
crops, preventing ground from remaining long in grass, and late fall plow- 
ing followed by repeated harrowing for a month or two are the best means 
of preventing their increase. Seeds might be protected by the use of some 
substance as a repellent which would not injure germination. 

GENERAL CROP INSECTS 

The Army Worm (Leucama unipimcta, Haworth). — In general appear- 
ance it resembles cutworms. About 13/^ inches long, dark in color, with 
three yellowish stripes down the back. The adult insect is a dull brown 
moth, often seen about lights in the spring. The worm feeds naturally on 
wild grasses, l3ut when it is abundant marches across fields, destroying 
many crops, including corn, wheat, oats and related crops, as well as many 
truck crops. 

Treatjuent. — The march of the worms to uninfested fields may be 
checked by a deep dust furrow through which a log is dragged occasionally 
to crush the worms and to maintain a thick coat of dust on the sides. 
Scattering poison bran mash through infested fields will often prove very 
effective. Late fall plowing and cultivating will help in destroying over- 
wintering worms. 

The Alfalfa Leaf Weevil (Phytonomus posticus, Fab.). — This insect, 
which has been accidentally introduced into the United States from Europe, 
now threatens the alfalfa industry of the country. From a small field 
near Salt Lake, where it was first found, it has spread through the surround- 
ing country mitil it has gone as far as Wyoming and Idaho. In the spring 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 253 



the adult insect punctures the stems of the plants as they are coming 
up, and deposits its eggs in the wounds. The grubs hatch and feed upon 
the tender leaves until they are fully developed. Transformation then 

takes place and the adult beetle begins to de- 
stroy the foliage. 

Treatment. — ^Breaking up the ground in the 
sprmg with a disk harrow to stimulate a rapid 
growth has been found to be beneficial. Clean 
up all trash and rubbish which might form hiding 
places for the insect. Immediately after first 
cutting use a spike-tooth harrow, followed closely 
by a brush drag to knock off and kill the grubs. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 112; Utah Exp. Sta. BuU. 110. 
The Chinch Bug (Blissus Icucopterus, Say.). — 
Throughout the Middle states this is the worst 
enemy of all kinds of grains. It hibernates for 
the most part in clumps of grass, but may be 
found in weeds and rubbish along fence rows. 
The bug injures the plant by sucking the sap 
from the stalks. 
Treatment. — Concerted action by the farmers in a large area, in burn- 
ing the bunch grass late in the fall or in early winter, is the best means of 
control. The grass should be burned close to the ground when it is per- 




Chinch Bug 
(Blissiis leucoplerus) .^ 

Adult of long- winged form, 
much enlarged. 




Chinch Bug (Blissus leucopterus).''- 
Adults of short-winged form, much enlarged. 

fectly dry, thus destroying many of the insects and leaving others unpro- 
tected against the storms of winter. When bugs are migrating from small 
grains to corn or other crops in summer, they may be stopped by dusty 
ditches with post holes in bottom, by dust ridges or coal tar barriers. 
Farm. Bull. 657. 



1 Bur. Ent. Cir. 113, 



254 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Clover Mite {Bryobia prcetensis, Garm.). — A common red mite on 
many plants, including clover, alfalfa and a nmnber of varieties of fruit. 

Treatment. — Dust the plants with sulphur and lime at rate of 1-4, or 
spray with either 10 per cent kerosene emulsion or sulphur in water, 1 
pound to 4 gallons. Destroy eggs on fruit trees in winter with 20 per cent 
kerosene emulsion or with lime-sulphur. 
Bur. Ent. Cii-. 158. 

Clover Root Borer (Hylastinus ohscuriis, Marsham) . — The beetle win- 
ters over in clover roots; emerges 
in the spring and lays eggs in 
the larger roots. The grubs, on 
hatching, bore through central 
part, destroying plants. 

Treatment. — Plow the fields 
after haying, allowing the roots 
to dry. Pasturing checks the 
injury. Infested field should not 
be allowed to stand over the sec- 
ond season. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 119. 

Com Ear Worm {HeUothis 
obsolcta, Fab.). — This insect is 
also known as the cotton boll 
worm, the tobacco bud worm or 
the tomato fruit worm. It has 
a long list of other food plants, 
but on many causes no serious 
injury. On corn the eggs are 
laid by the moths upon the silk. 
The larvae upon hatching enter 
the ear and begin to feed on 
the immature grains. Cotton is 
not seriously attacked until the 
corn silks are drying up, as corn 
is much preferred by the worms. 
The adults lay their eggs upon the 
cotton leaves and the larva;, after feeding for a short time upon the foliage, 
enter the bolls. They attack tobacco by eating into the buds, and tomatoes 
are injured by attacks upon the fruit. 

Treatment. — For all crops the injury is materially lessened by late 
fall plowing and cultivation which crushes many pupae in the soil and 
exposes others to the winter. On cotton the insect may be well controlled 
by two applications of an arsenical dust or spray at the time the eggs are 
hatching. Tobacco may be protected by dropping into the buds a little 

> Bur. Ent. Cir. 158, 




Clover Mite {Bryobia proelensis) .^ 
Enlarged; natural size shoun by lino at right. 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 255 



corn meal, poisoned with powdered arsenate of lead, using 2 or 3 spoonfuls 
to a quart of meal. Early maturing varieties of corn or cotton will not 
be so seriously injured as the later kinds. 
Farm. BuU. 290; Bur. Ent. BuU. 50. 

The Com Root Aphis {Aphis maidi-radicis, Forbes). — A bluish-green 
plant louse found on the roots of corn, broom corn, sorghum and on several 
weeds. It weakens the plant, causing it to be stunted and poorly nour- 
ished. 

Treatment. — One year rotation to other crops than corn, clean cultiva- 
tion and liberal use of fertilizers, winter plowing to break up nests of ants 
where aphis eggs are stored. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. S6; Bur. Ent. BuU. 85, Pt. 6. 

Cotton Boll Worm (Heliothis obsoleta, Fab.). — 
See Corn Ear Worm, 

Cotton Worm {Alabama argillacea, Hbn.). — A 
dark-greenish caterpillar, striped with black, the 
larva of a grajash-brown moth marked on the fore 
wings with irregular darker bands. They feed on 
the under side of leaves when young, later feeding 
on the entire leaf and when abundant on buds and 
tender stalks. Adults make strong flights, going as 
far north as Canada. They feed at times on ripe 
fruit, which they are able to puncture with strong 
mouth parts. 

Treatment. — Dust the plants with powdered ar- 
senate of lead when the worms appear. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. 153. 






1 2 3 

Clover Root Borer {Hylastinus obscurus).^ 

1 — Adult beetle, natural size at right. 2 — Larva or grub, much enlarged. 
3 — Showing work of the borer. 



iBur. Ent. Cir. 119. 




Cotton Worm (Alabama argillacea).^ 
Stages and work. 



'Bur. Ent. Cir. 153. 

(25G) 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 257 




c 

Fall Army Worm 
{Laphygma frugiperda).^ 

A — Moth, plain gray form. B 
wing of prodenia-like form. C — Larva 
extended. D — Abdominal segment of 
larva, lateral view; twice natural size. 
E — Pupa, lateral view. 



The Cotton Red Spider {Tetran- 
ychus bimaculatus, Harvey). — This 
small red mite is common on cot- 
ton and on several other plants, es- 
pecially pokeweed and violet. It 
causes the leaves of cotton to turn 
red and fall off. It kills plants if 
abundant. 

Treatment. — Prevent the mites 
from starting on the cotton by clean 
culture, being sure to eradicate all 
pokeweed and violets near the fields. 
If found in cotton fields, spray the 
affected plants with potassium sul- 
phide 3 pounds and water 100 gallons; 
make two applications one week 
Fore apart. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 172. 

The Fall Army Worm (Laphygma 
frugiperda, S. and A.). — In general 



appearance is similar to the common 
army worm, but with different markings. It has wide range of food 
plants, including many 
forage and truck crops. 

Treatment. • — P r a c - 
tice fall plowing to break 
up the pupae cells in the 
ground. Scatter poison 
bran mash when the cat- 
erpillars appear, or spray 
or dust with arsenicals. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 29. 

The Green Bug, or 
Spring Grain Aphis (Tox- 
opteragraminum, Rond.). 
— ^A small green plant 
louse which attacks oats, 
wheat, barley and other 
grains. It appears very 
early in the spring. 

Treatment. — No sat- 
isfactory method of con- 
trol is known. Attacks 
may be partially pre- 




'Hessian Fly (Mayetiola destructor).^ 
Adult female, much enlarged. 



»Bar. Ent. Ball 29. 



" Farm. Ball. 040. 




/^ 



'^.' 




Green Bug, or Spring Grain Aphis (Toxoplera graminum)} 

Wheat plant showing winged and wingless viviparous females with their 
young clustered on leaves, and a few paraeitized individuals on lower leaves. 
About natural size. 



>Bur. Ent. Bull. 110. 

(258) 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 259 




Southern Corn Root Worm 
{Diabrolica duodecimpimctata).^ 

A— Beetle. B— Egg. C— Larva. D— Anal 

segment of larva. E — Work of larva at base of corn 

stalk. F — Pupa. All much enlarged except E, which 
is reduced. 



two weeks after usual time 
vent most of usual injury. 

U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 51, Office of 
Secretary; Farm. Bull. 640. 



vented by late planting 
and by the destruction of 
volunteer wheat and oats 
in the fall. 

Bur. Ent. Bull. 110. 

The Hessian Fly 

{Mayetiola destructor, 
Say.).^ — -This small two- 
winged fly is one of the 
most destructive insects 
of growing wheat, causing 
the plants to be stunted 
and to break down near 
harvest time. 

Treatment. — Burn the 
stubble or plow it under 
as soon after harvest as 
possible. Destroy all 
volunteer wheat just be- 
fore sowing. Delay the 
sowing until ten days or 
The two latter precautions should pre- 





A B 

Cotton Boll Weevil 
{Anthonomus grandis).^ 

A — Beetle, from above. B — Same from 
side. About five times natural size. 



Tobacco Flea Beetle 
(Epitrix parvula).^ 

A — Adult beetle. B — Larva, side 
view. C — Head of larva. D — Hind leg 
of same. E — Anal segment of same. 
F— Pupa. A, B, F— Enlarged about fif- 
teen times. C, D, E — More enlarged. 



' Bur. Ent. Bull. 4:j. 



' Farm. Bull. 344. 



» Bur. Ent. Cir. 123. 



260 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandis, Boh.). — No pest of 
cotton has caused so much injury as this small brown beetle. Both the 
adult insects and the larvae feed upon the squares and the bolls, injuring 
the fiber. 

Treatment. — Clean up and destroy all stalks, dead bolls and crop rem- 
nants as soon as cotton is picked, either by burning or burjang. Plow- 
under or burn in the fall and winter all trash in neighboring fields and 




Southern Tobacco Horn Worm (Phlegcthontius sexto). ^ 
A — Adult. B — Larva. C — Pupa. 



hedgerows where the insect might hibernate. Prepare the land early* 
plant early and fertiUze heavily to secure an early crop. 
Farm. Bull. 344, Senate Document No. 305, 62d Congress. 

Spring Grain Aphis (Toxoptera graminum, Rond.). — See Green Bug. 

Southern Com Root Worm, or Bud Worm {Diabrotica duodecimpunc- 
iata, Oliv.). — Greenish-yellow beetle marked on the back with twelve 
black spots. Feeds on a variety of plants. Larva or grub feeds on roots 
of corn after boring into roots and stem. 

Treatment. — No satisfactory insecticidal treatment is known. The 
worst of the injury may be prevented in Southern states by planting about 

»Bur. EDt. Cir. 123. 
02 





Western Corn Root Worm (Diabrotica longicorni.s).'- 

1— Adult, or beetle; a, claw of hind leg; much enlai-ged. 2 — Larva, 
or worm, much enlarged. 3 — Egg, highly magnified. 




Wheat Joint W^orm (Isoso77ia tritici).- 

1 — Adult of the joint worm much enlarged. 2 — One 
effect of the joint worm in wheat straw. 



iDept. Bull. 8. 



« Bur. Ent. Cir. 66. 



(261) 



262 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



three weeks later than* usual or after most of the first brood eggs have 
been deposited. 

Dept. Bull. No. 5. 

Tobacco Flea Beetle {Epitrix parvula, Fab.). — A small dark-colored 
beetle, eating holes in the leaves of tobacco. The 
beetle is a very active jumper and cannot be readily 
captured. 

Treatment. — Apply arsenicals by spraying or as 
dust when the injury is first noticed and again a 
few days later, if the beetles are still present. 

Bur. Ent. Cii-. 123; Year-Book 1910, pp. 281-296. 

Tobacco Worms, or Horn Worms (Phlegethontius 
quinquemaculata, Haw., and P. sexta, Johan.). — These 
two pests are the most destructive of the tobacco 
insects. They feed on the leaves and buds. 

Treatment. — Hand picking or the use of arsen- 
icals will prevent serious injury. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 123; Bur. Ent. Cir. 173 

Western Com Root Worm (Diahrotica longicor- 
nis, Say.). — A yellowish green beetle, the larva of 
which feeds on the roots of corn. There is only 
one generation of the insect each year. 

Treatment. — The only successful way of com- 
bating the pest is to rotate crops from corn to one 
of the small grains. 

Dept. Bull. No. 8. 

Wheat Joint Worm (Isosoma tritici, Fitch). — 
Most of the injury from this insect has been found 
in the wheat-growing regions east of the Missis- 
sippi River. The adult is a small black insect 
somewhat resembhng a small winged ant. Eggs 
are laid in the straw of growing wheat after several 
joints have been formed. The larvae develop in 
the joints and emerge in the following spring. 

Treatment. — Burn or plow under all stubble in the fall. Burn all 
outstanding straw in spring. Do not scatter green manure in fields to be 
planted in wheat in spring if infested straw was used for bedding. Fertilize 
liberally. Practice rotation of crops. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 66. 

Wheat Straw Worm {Isosoma grande, Riley). — West of the Mississippi 
River this insect is often a very serious enemy of wheat. The larva works 
inside the young shoots early in the spring and the later generation in 
straw. 

Treatment. — Injury can be largely prevented by a rotation of crops 

> fiur. £ut. Cir. 106. 




Larva of Isosoma 

grande m Wheat 

Straw. 1 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 263 



according to Prof. F. M. Webster. Wheat should not be planted on the 
same ground two years in succession. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. 106. 

REFERENCES 
"Insects Injurious to the Household and Annoying to Man." Herrick. 
"Injurious Insects: How to Recognize and Control." O'Kane. 
"Manual for Study of Insects." Comstock. 
"American Insects." Kellogg. 

" Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard." Sanderson. 
Connecticut Expt. Station Bulletin 186. "Gipsy Moth." 
Missouri Expt. Station Bulletin 134. "Insect Pests of Field Crops." 
New Jersey Expt. Station Circular 46. "Hessian Fly." 
Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 138. "Control of Grasshoppers." 
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin: 

150. "Common Fungous and Insect Pests." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

344. "Boll-Weevil Problem." 

498. " Methods of Exterminating the Texas Fever Tick." 

512. "Boll-Weevil Problem." 

543, "Common White Grubs." 

564. "The Gipsy and Brown Tail Moth : Their Control." 

634. "The Larger Corn Stalk Borer." 

636. "The Chalcis-Fly in Alfalfa Seed." 

637. "The Grass Hopper Problem and the Alfalfa Culture." 
640. "The Hessian Fly." 

671. "Harvest Mites or Chiggers." 



CHAPTER 21 

iNSECTICroES AND FUNGICIDES 

By H. Garman 
Professor of Entomology, University of Kentucky 

The word insecticide has come to mean any chemical or other sub- 
stance used to destroy insects that are hurtful or objectionable in any way 
to man. This definition excludes substances such as sticky fly-paper that 
may be employed to entrap pests and would, according to some entomolo- 
gists, exclude also simple deterrents, such as oil of citronella, used to keep 
insects away by their offensive odors. In a general way, however, every 
substance employed to prevent the injuries of insects is an insecticide and 
in this view it does not matter whether or not they kill, deter or entrap. 

The insecticides most used and valued by practical men either kill 
as poisons when eaten with food, or else destroy when brought in contact 
with the bodies of insects, in which case they are sometimes called contact 
insecticides. 

A group of insecticides of which the effective ingredient is arsenic has 
proved especially popular and useful in suppressing insects which feed by 
gnawing away and devouring the leaves of plants. 

Paris Green. — Of these the one best known and most used is Paris 
green, Schweinfurth green, or Imperial green, French green and Emerald 
green. It was first used in the arts, and because of its cheapness and 
poisonous properties was early tried on the Colorado potato beetle (about 
1868) proving a very satisfactory means of suppressing the pest when used 
either as a dry powder or when stirred into water. It contains a little 
soluble arsenic however, and in water this is liable to burn leaves to which 
it is applied, hence care must be exercised not to use too much. Four to 
five ounces of the powder in a barrel of water is commonly regarded as 
enough; if more is used a pound or two of freshly-slaked lime may be added 
to neutralize its caustic effect. 

Arsenate of Lead. — Paris green has two defects: Its burning action 
is often hard to guard against, and its weight causes it to settle quickly 
when used in water, rendering the spray produced uneven in strength. 
Stirrers connected with spray pumps obviate the latter trouble, but some- 
times increase the labor of operating pumps. The addition of lime, as 
already suggested, lessens the burning action, though the lime may, if care 
is not exercised, increase the labor of applying. 

Arsenate of lead has neither of these defects. It is practically insol- 
uble in water, does not bui'n foliage, and it is so finely subdivided that it 

(264) 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 265 



remains suspended much better than Paris green. It has the additional 
advantage of adhering to leaves longer than Paris green, and thus fewer 
apphcations are required. A single spraying with this substance, if applied 
at the right time, is for some plants sufficient for a whole season. The 
arsenate of lead paste is commonly used with water in the proportion of 
2| to 3 pounds in 50 gallons. As found in the market it contains about 50 
per cent of water. 

It requires more by weight to destroy insects than Paris green, but 
the cost per pound is less and hence the actual cost for materials amounts 
to about the same, whichever poison is used. Its advantages are so 
decided in other chrections that it is now supplanting Paris green in popular 
favor. For the injuries of most gnawing insects working on foliage this 
insecticide may be safely recommended. 

To meet the objections sometimes made to arsenate of lead paste, 
a powdered arsenate of lead has recently been offered to the public by 
manufacturers of insecticides. The paste when dried out is lumpy and is 
not in this condition easy to mix with water. In the powdered form it is 
not open to this objection and may, besides, be dusted over plants without 
the addition of water. 

There are serious objections to the use of poisonous dusts, however, 
though in practice they have advantages that always commend them to 
workmen. The weight of the water to be carried when using liquid sprays 
increases the labor, of course, and this ought to be lessened if it can be done 
without diminishing the effectiveness of the applications, and also without 
increasing the danger to those maldng the applications. The inhaling of 
either diy Paris green or arsenate of lead is a serious matter, and if con- 
tinued long is certain to lead to ill health. Liquid sprays go more directly 
and evenly to the plants and stay there. They may be made just as 
promptly effective as the dusts if used when the injury is beginning. They 
are not so likely to be inhaled. 

Arsenite of Zinc. — This poison has somewhat recently been recom- 
mended as a substitute for Paris green and arsenate of lead, and appears 
to be about equally good and somewhat cheajDer than either. It is a finely 
divided white powder as put on the market and remains in suspension 
about as well as arsenate of lead, having thus some advantage over Paris 
green. It contains a little water-soluble arsenic and has been claimed to be 
less injurious to foliage even than arsenate of lead, possessing at the same 
time about the same killing power. For use it is stirred first into a httle 
w^ater and allow^ed to soak for a time, then is stirred into the water in which 
it is to be used, about one pound of the powder being added to 50 gallons of 
water. It contains nearly the same quantity of arsenic as Paris green. 
Like arsenate of lead, it remains in suspension better if a little soap is 
dissolved in the water into which it has been stirred. It has of late been 
quoted by dealers at from 20 to 25 cents per pound. 

London Purple, — This arsenite came into use for injurious insects 



266 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

somewhat later than Paris green (about 1878), but is less used now than 
formerly because of its lack of uniformity in composition and its excessive 
burning of foliage. Its affective ingredient as an insecticide is arsenic in 
the form of lime arsenite and lime arsenate, of which it contains about 40 
per cent, nearly half of which is soluble. It is the soluble arsenious and 
arsenic oxides that make this insecticide so injm-ious to the foliage and 
render necessary the addition of lime. The amount of i:)ure arsenic 
present has been found to be about 29 per cent. For use it is customary to 
recommend about one-quarter pound each of London purple and fresh lime 
in from 50 to 75 gallons of water. 

White Arsenic. — The use of this poison has been recommended from 
time to time for gnawing insects, but the time and labor required in boiling 
it with milk of lime (thus producing an arsenite of lime) in order to avoid its 
burning effect on foliage has prevented its general employment as an insect- 
icide. It can be made to accomplish the same purpose as Paris green and 
arsenate of lead, without injury to foHage, by boiling for a half hour 1 
pound of commercial arsenic and 2 pounds of fresh lime in 4 gallons of 
water, diluting with water finally to make 100 gallons. 

Sulphur. — Flowers of sulphur has been used for many years as an in- 
secticide, especially for mites infesting hothouse plants, Wlien dusted on 
plants it does no harm to the leaves, but is not as effective as could be 
desired. When burned in hothouses it may do severe injury to plants. 
These defects have led to its neglect by entomologists. Wlien sulphur is 
boiled -with lime, however, it produces a lime sulphide, in which condition 
it becomes one of the best of insecticides for use in winter against scale 
insects. 

Lime-sulphur Wash.^ — In tliis condition thousands of barrels of the 
boiled sulphur and lime are sold to fruit growers every year, Avho use it 
largely as a remedy against 8an Jose scale. A concentrated solution 
is prepared by boiling in large iron kettles, tanks or other vessels, 50 pounds 
of fresh lime, 100 pounds of sulphur and 50 gallons of water. Part of the 
water is heated, then the lime is added and is followed by the sulphur, the 
whole being stirred continually while boiling, the time employed being 
from fifty minutes to an hour. Finally, after adding enough hot water to 
make 50 gallons, the solution is strained and set aside until ready to use. 
Home-made solutions may not test higher than 27 to 30° Baume, but when 
carefully made go higher and may even reach 34 or 35° Bamne, the differ- 
ences being apparently due to differences in the quality of limes used. 

The manufacturers now follow about the same formula in producing 
their concentrated products, but because of having better facilities will 
perhaps average higher in concentration than the fruit grower, although 
analysis of samples bought in the market have sometimes shown that they 
did not test as high as good home-made lime-sulphur. 

These concentrated solutions are of a deep reddish-yellow color and 
for use must be greatly diluted with water. It is customary in spraying 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 



267 



for San Jose scale to use one part of the solution to eight or ten of water 
and to apply during open weather in February or March, while the trees are 
still dormant. For summer use they must be diluted with from 30 to 50 
parts of water to avoid injury to the foliage, but lose much of their value 
as insecticides when thus weakened. The concentrated solution is regarded 
as the most effective remedy for scale injury now in use. 

It should be added that there has somewhat recently appeared a 
so-called "soluble sulphur" which is recommended for the same uses as 




A LiME-suLPHrR Cooking Outfit.* 



lime-sulphur. It promises well, but has not been tested long enough and 
carefully enough to justify very positive statements as to its merits. 

Tobacco Extracts. — For use against soft-bodied insects such as plant 
lice there is no more useful insecticide than extracts made from the midribs 
of tobacco leaves. These extracts contain as their effective ingredient 
nicotine and differ widely in the percentage of nicotine they contam. 
Home-made extracts or decoctions are made by placing a couple of pounds 
of the midribs in a wooden bucket full of boiling hot water, allowing it to 
stand over night. The percentage of nicotine under such treatment will 
probably not be more than 0.07 per cent, but it is a very useful wash for 
plants infested with aphides, does no harm at all to leaves, and where 

•From Farmers' Bulletin 650, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 



2G8 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

tobacco is grown and the midribs can be easily secured is one of the very- 
best insecticides for uses of this sort. The whole leaf makes a somewhat 
stronger extract (0.12 per cent) as determined by tests recently made at 
the Virginia Station. Soaking seems to extract as much of the nicotine as 
boiling. When plants are to be treated on a larger scale it becomes impor- 
tant to know just how much nicotine is present in a wash, and manufactured 
extracts, some of them containing 40 per cent of nicotine, are demanded. 
For the apple leaf louse, the lettuce louse, the rose aphis and other similar 
pests, these extracts are safe and effective. For thick-skinned insects they 
are not so satisfactory. 

Tobacco is often used in other ways as a remedy for insect injuries, 
but is open to some objections when so employed. Florists have long used 
the midribs (often called "stems") for making a smudge for the destruction 
of plant lice. The tobacco is simply burned in a perforated iron vessel. 
The smoke leaves a strong smell of tobacco on flowers, which is sometimes 
objected to by buyers. The odor can be avoided by using the extract 
diluted with water and driven off as a vapor by dropping a hot iron into a 
pan containing it. 

P3rrethrum. — Under the name Persian insect powder or simply insect 
powder this msecticide is to be obtained from most dealers in drugs. It 
is a brown powder made from the flowers of a rather handsome plant of 
the sunflower family (Composites). Its beauty leads florists to propagate 
it, though few who grow the plant know that it has any relation to the 
powder sold in drug stores. It comes to us from the East, and the pow- 
der commonly sold here is imported, though an effort has been made in 
the west coast states to manufacture the powder in this country. 

The powder is thought to give off a volatile oil which penetrates the 
breathing tubes of insects and thus by some irritating or suffocating effect 
overpowers them. It is effective either dry, in water or when burned to 
produce a smudge, but must be fresh. It loses much of its effectiveness if 
kept in open packages. Though rather costly for use on field crops, it has 
a place in the household at times, and may sometimes be profitably resorted 
to for limited outbreaks of garden pests. Unlike most other insecticides, 
this one is not hurtful to man; at any rate, not more so than snuff. 

White Hellebore. — This is another vegetable product, being the 
pulverized rootstocks of a plant {Veratrum album) of the lily family, 
occurring in Europe and northern Africa. It is used in this country for 
the rose slug, either dry or in water, in the latter case about two heaping 
tablespoonfuls being stirred into a wooden bucketful (2| gallons) of water. 
It is a stomach poison and also a contact insecticide. 

Old samples when not kept in airtight receptacles lose their virtue and 
tend to discredit this vegetable poison as a remedy for pests. 

Coal Oil. — This oil has become well known as an insecticide in the 
form of an emulsion. It is a good contact insecticide, serving the same 
purpose as lime-sulphur wash in the destruction of scale insects, and having 

64 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 269 

the advantage of remaining effective when diluted. It can, therefore, be 
used on foliage in summer for both scale insects and plant lice, and being 
quicker in its action than tobacco extract, has advantages under some 
circumstances over the extract for the prompt destruction of soft-bodied 
insects. It is, however, more likely to do injury to plants, especially if the 
emulsion is badly prepared, and this, together with the work required in 
making it, leads practical men to neglect it whenever they can use some- 
thing else. 

The standard emulsion is made of one-half pound of whale oil or 
laundry soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling hot water, this to be added to 
two gallons of coal oil, and the whole churned for ten minutes by passing 
rapidly through a force pump. As thus made it can be diluted for use, 
one part to ten of water. 

Crude Oils. — These are sometimes used for the same purposes as the 
refined oil, and to render them easily mixed with water are sometimes 
mixed with caustic potash, fish oil and crude carbolic acid, producing a 
so-called miscible or soluble oil, which can be diluted with water for use 
like the coal oil emulsion. 

Soaps. — Many of the soaps sold in our market can be used at times as 
a means of lessening the injuries of insect pests. A good soapsuds fre- 
quently and freely used on plants infested with aphides or scale insects has 
a good effect, though not a very prompt one. Stronger solutions must be 
used with some caution to avoid injury to foliage. When trees are dormant 
very strong solutions (one or two pounds to a gallon of water) are sometimes 
used on the trunks for scale and other insects. 

Whale oil soap or fish oil soap, as it is sometimes called, is to be pre- 
ferred to most others because of its more even composition. It is particu- 
larly good for use in making coal oil emulsion. 

Coal Tar. — In the early days of fruit gi'owing in America this substance 
was much used on the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent in the spring 
of the wingless female canker worm moth. It proved to have an injurious 
effect on the trees after a time, and hardened on exposure, so that the insects 
could pass over the barrier. It was then used on bands of tin, and by 
frequent renewal proved a useful check on the insect. But with the intro- 
duction of arsenites and spraying machinery, it was given up for the more 
convenient treatment. It is still used as a barrier, poured along the ground, 
for chinch-bugs which are migrating from small grains to corn. Seed corn 
may be treated with it before planting to deter wire worms and the seed 
corn maggot from attacking the germinating seeds. The corn is fii'st 
immersed in warm water for a minute or two, then a couple of teaspoonfuls 
of the tar are stirred quickly among the gTain so as to bring a little in con- 
tact with each seed. It dries over night so as to be ready for planting the 
following day. The application does no harm to the germ, as has been 
determined by germination tests of treated seeds. 

Borax. — This substance has often been recommended for roaches in 



270 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

dwellings, and is sometimes found with an arsenite as an ingredient of 
proprietary roach pastes. Recent work done with a view to destroying 
the larvse of house flies in manm-e indicates that this is one of the best of 
insecticides for the purpose, excelling for this use, coal oil, pyroligneus acid, 
formalin and Paris green. Sodium borate and crude calcium borate were 
both found effective in Idlling the larva, either when used dry or in solu- 
tion. It was recommended as a result of the work done that about 0.62 
pound of borax be used in 8 bushels of manure. Larger amounts of borax 
are believed to be injurious to plants when the manure is spread on land. 
The cost was estimated at one cent per horse per day. 

Other Insecticides. — Numerous other insecticides have been recom- 
mended, and have had a limited use, but, exceptmg the fmnigants con- 
sidered later, they have not been generallj^ adopted by practical men. 
Among them may be mentioned benzene, which is sometimes applied to 
fabrics to destroy clothes moth; carbolized plaster, sometimes recom- 
mended as a remedy for fleas about stables; fir-tree oil, lemon oil and oil 
of citronella, the latter often employed as a deterrent against the attacks 
of mosquitoes and also as a preventive of injury to seed corn in the soil. 
Quassia, the effective ingi-ecUent of which is quassiin, is obtained from 
the wood of the Jamaican Picrasma excelsa. It is an old insecticide that 
has been perhaps most used in solutions for the hop aphis m the West. 
The extract is made from the ''chips" by either soakmg or boiling. 

Bisulphide of Carbon. — As sold by druggists and manufacturers, this 
is a brownish fluid which quickly disappears in the air when exposed in 
an open vessel. Its disagreeal:)le odor is due to mipurities, since the odor 
of pure bisulphide of carbon is not unpleasant. The fumes are not only 
poisonous, but are inflammable, so that some care must be exercised in 
handling the fluid. It has proved of special service as a remedy for grain 
weevil, bean weevil and other insects attacking stored seeds, and for the 
phylloxera of grapevines in Europe, for the woolly aphis, for ants, and 
even for the clothes moth. Its great value for such purposes comes not 
only from its effectiveness in destrojdng all insects, but also because it is 
not corrosive and is otherwise not injurious to seeds, fabrics and other 
objects fumigated. The offensive odor is soon gone if objects that have 
been exposed to the fumes are thoroughly aired. It cannot be used for 
fumigating plants infested with insects because of its destructive effect on 
the plants themselves. 

About one fluid ounce should be used on each bushel of seed, and may 
be poured over the seeds or simply placed in a saucer or other open vessel 
set on their surface. It is absolutely necessary that the seeds be enclosed 
in a tight box or bin to get satisfactory results, and the time of exposure 
should not be less than two nours. 

Carbon Tetrachlorid. — The disagreeable odor of commercial bisulphide 
of carbon renders it objectionable to some people for use on fabrics infested 
with moth, and has led to the suggestion that carbon tetrachlorid, which 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 



271 



has a rather pleasant odor, be used in its stead. This also is a fluid, and is 
used in the same way as carbon bisulphide, namely, by pom-ing it into open 
dishes or crocks and allowing it to evaporate in a box, bin or room. 

It is not nearly as effective in small quantities as either cyanide of 
potassium or carbon bisulphide, and the large quantities that must be 
used increase the cost of treatment. 

Para-dichlorobenzene. — This is a recently proposed fumigant and is 
not yet in general use, because of its cost. Ifc is not evil-smelling like 




Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas.^ 
Front edge of sheet tent and top of derrick ready to be pulled over tree. 



carbon bisulphide, and appears to be quite effective in destroying weevils 
in grain and clothes moth. Since it is not inflammable, it can be more 
safely used about dwellings, though its fumes have wonderful penetrating 
power and escape in some quantity even from tightly stoppered bottles. 
From a limited experience with it the writer is disposed to regard it very 
favorably for fumigating seeds and fabrics, though more extended tests 
may show it to have defects that are not now apparent. 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. — This gas is made from cyanide of potassium 
(98 per cent), commercial sulphuric acid of good grade and water. The 



> Courtesy of U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



272 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



gas produced is very poisonous, as are also the cyanide of potassium and 
sulphuric acid. When fumigating it is well to place a notice on the room 
or house warning jDeople not to enter. After the fumigating is accomplished 
it is advisable to open up doors and Avindows and air out for ten minutes 
or more before entering. 

The dose to be used depends upon the space to be fumigated and upon 
the character of the j^lants to be treated. Dormant trees can be exposed for 




Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas.' 
Sheet tent ready for introduction of chemicals. 



a time to very strong fumes. Growing plants must be treated cautiously 
with very mild doses. Some of them are very sensitive to the gas and will 
be slightly burned with any dose calculated to be of value in destroying 
insects. The condition of the air as to moisture may influence the results, 
since dampness favors injury from the gas. 

For nursery stock it is customary to employ for each 100 cubic feet 
enclosed, the following: 

Cyanide of potassium 1 ounce 

Sulphuric acid 1 . 25 fluid ounces 

Water 3 fluid ounces 

1 Courtesy of U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 



273 



FUNGICIDES 

When all has been said the number of fungicides approved by the 
experience of practical and scientific men is very small. Many have been 
recommended, but comparatively few have stood all the tests as to effective- 
ness, convenience of application and cheapness. 

Copper Sulphate. — At the head of the list stands copper sulphate, a 
cheap, effective fungicide, commonly known as bluestone. This is the 
active and most essential ingredient of Bordeaux mixture. Concentrated 
solutions of it cannot be used alone on foliage because of their caustic action. 
In winter on dormant trees it is sometimes used for fungous troubles, about 
two pounds being dissolved in a barrel of water. A weaker solution — 1 




Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes. 
Not Sprayed. 1 



One Row 



pound in 200 gallons of water — may be used on foliage in summer when 
fruit is well matured and it is not desirable to use sprays like Bordeaux 
mixture, which leave a residue. The bluestone may be quickly dissolved 
by pouring boiling hot water over it. When one is not hurried it may be 
dissolved by suspending in a loose sack in the water. It dissolves slowly 
if simply thrown in the water and allowed to settle. 

To avoid to some extent the delays involved in dissolving bluestone it 
is well to buy a finely powdered grade now manufactured for the making 
of fungicidal preparations. 

Bordeaux Mixture. — A standard formula for the preparation of this 
valuable mixture is the following: 

Bluestone 4 pounds 

Fresh lime '. 4 pounds 

Water ' 50 gallons 

* Courtesy of New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. 



274 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Dissolve the bluestone in 25 gallons of water, slake the lime separately, 
and add water to make 25 gallons; then pour the two, bucket by backet, 
into a third barrel so as to mix thoroughly. For peach and plum, which are 
more tender than apple and grape, the above formula may be changed to 
the following: 

Bluestone 2.5 pounds 

Fresh lime 2.5 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

These are the best preparations known for mildews, rots, scabs, smuts 
and the like, and where one is dealing v\nth a fungous trouble and is uncer- 





Treating Grain with Formalin for Smut.' 



tain as to how to proceed, the chances are that he will accomplish as much 
by using this preparation as with anything that could be recommended. 
It is the best general-purpose fungicide we have at present. 

Copperas, or Iron Sulphate. — While this is less often used than blue- 
stone, yet it has decided fungicide and antisei^ie value, and because of its 
cheapness may sometimes be found serviceable. As now used it generally 
comes to the market as a waste product in the manufacture of steel wire, 
and may be bought for a cent or less per pound, 

Fonnalin, or Formaldehyde. — This very valuable preservative and 
antiseptic has been much used of late as a remedy for potato scab and to 
some extent for wheat smut. It is sold as a fluid containing forty per cent 
of formalin. In this condition it is very acrid, and gives off fumes that 
affect the eyes and nostrils unpleasantly. Used on the hands, it quickly 

'Courtesy of H. L. Bolley and M. L. Wilaon, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 275 

destroj's the outer skin. It cannot, therefore, be employed except when 
greatly diluted. But since it retains its active fungicide and bactericidal 
properties even when very greatly diluted, and is not so dangerous a poison 
in this condition as are corrosive sublimate and other antiseptic agents, it 
becomes very useful in the hands of those who wish to disinfect quarters in 
which have been lodged people, or animals, affected with communicable 
diseases. The wash or spray of the dilute formalin has always seemed to 
the wi'iter much better for such uses than the fumes of formalin as generally 
produced. 

On plants the action of even dilute sprays is very quickly destructive, 
and I doubt if it has a value for their treatment. But for seed wheat, 
likely to produce smutted heads and for potato scab it has proved very 
convenient and useful. A pint of the 40 per cent formalin may be poured 
into a barrel containing 30 gallons of water, stirred thoroughly, and the 
potatoes in a sack can be set in the barrel for disinfection. They should be 
left in the fluid for two hours and may then be removed and spread out on 
grass or on a clean plank floor to dry, when another sack may be placed 
in the barrel. The treated potatoes must not be put in barrels or sacks 
that have not been treated with the formalin. By having a number of 
barrels at hand, the work proceeds rapidly. 

Oats and wheat liable to smut may be treated by sprinkling the seed 
with dilute formalin (1 pint in a barrel of water) until every seed is moist, 
not wet, then leaving for several hours in a heap, finally spreading out 
to dry. 

Fumes of formalin produced either by heat or by the use of perman- 
ganate of potash have been recommended as a remedy for potato scab, 
but the writer's experience with the fumes has not been such as to warrant 
him in recommending them for this or for other purposes. 

Bichloride of Mercury. — A very poisonous chemical, valuable in dilate 
solutions (1 part in 1000) as a disinfectant, and particularly good as a 
remedy for potato scab. The whitish, crystalline, very heavy material is 
very dangerous to have about, since it may attract the attention of children 
or animals. It should of course always be kept labeled as a poison. It 
dissolves slowly in cold water, and it is best, therefore, to make use of heat, 
afterward turning the dissolved poison into the larger quantity of water 
required, best kept in a barrel. Good results have been obtained in check- 
ing potato scab with this disinfectant, using 4 ounces in 30 gallons of 
water and soaking the seed potatoes one hour. They were placed in the 
fluid in gunny sacks and afterward spread out on a barn floor to dry. 

It is very essential that poisoned potatoes be not left where stock will 
eat them, and the poisonous fluid must be disposed of after treating the 
seed, so that it will do no harm: 

Lime-Sulphur Wash. — This preparation of sulphur and lime has 
already been mentioned under insecticides. It has undoubted fungicide 
value both in concentrated and dilute preparations. For foliage the latter 



276 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

must always be used. Even the sulphur alone thickly strewn over leaves 
is a fairly good remedy for mildew. A very small quantity of the sulphur 
dissolved in the presence of lime renders it more effective both as an insect- 
icide and as a fungicide, 

COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 

The cost of treatment for pests is greatly increased by the necessity 
for frequent spraying when insecticides and fungicides are used separately. 
They have been combined in some cases with no loss in the effectiveness of 
either, and one of the important problems of both entomologists and plant 
pathologists at the present time is the finding of ways and means of reducing 
the number of sprayings still further. 

Some work in determining the compatibility of different mixtures has 
already been done, and it may be said that the following mix without loss 
and in some cases with a gain in effectiveness: 

Arsenate of lead (acid) and Bordeaux mixture. 

Arsenate of lead and tobacco. 

Arsenate of lead and acids. 

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and Bordeaux mixture. 

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and lime-sulphur. 

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and tobacco. 

Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. 

Arsenite of lime and Bordeau.x mixture. 

Arsenite of lime and tobacco. 

Lime-sulphur and tobacco. 

Soaps and Bordeaux mixture. 

Soaps and tobacco. 

Soaps and emulsions. 

Tobacco and lime-sulphur. 

Tobacco and soaps. 

Tobacco and emulsions. 

Tobacco and alkalies. 

Some dangerous combinations are the following: 

Arsenate of lead (acid) and soaps. 

Arsenate of lead (acid) and emulsions. 

Arsenate of lead (acid) and alkalies. 

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and acids. 

Arsenite of zinc and lime-sulphur. 

Arsenite of zinc and soaps. 

Arsenite of zinc and emulsions. 

Arsenite of zinc and alkalies. 

Arsenite of zinc and acids. 

Hydrocyanic acid gas and Bordeaux mixture. 



PART III 

TABLES OF AGRICULTURAL 

STATISTICS AND WEIGHTS 

AND MEASURES 



P77) 



Table I.— Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products. 



Table VI. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products. 



Crop. 



Corn, dent 10.6 

Corn, flint 11-3 

Corn, sweet 8.8 

Corn meal 15.0 

Corncob 10.7 

Corn and cob meal 15.1 

Corn bran 9 1 

Corn germ 10.7 

Hominy chops 11.1 

Germ meal 8.1 

Dried starch and sugar feed 10.9 

Starch feed, wet 65.4 

Maize feed, Chicago 9.1 

Grano-gluten 5.8 

Cream gluten 8.1 

Gluten meal 8.2 

Gluten feed 7.8 

Wheat, all analyses 10 . 5 

Wheat, spring 10 . 4 

Wheat, winter 10 . 5 

Flour, high grade 12 .2 

Flour, low grade 12.0 

Flour, dark feeding 9.7 

Bran, all analyses 11.9 

Bran, spring wheat 115 

Bran, winter wheat 12 . 3 

Middlings 12.1 

Shorts 11.8 

Wheat screenings 116 

Rye 11-6 

Rye flour :^^- ^^.l 

Rye bran 11.6 

Rye shorts 9.3 

Barley 10.9 

Barley meal 11.9 

Barley screenings 12.2 

Brewers' grains, wet 75 . 7 

Brewers' gi-ains, dried 8.2 

Malt sprouts 10.2 

Oats 11 

Oat meal 7.9 

Oat feed 7.7 

Oat dust 6.5 

OathuUs 7.3 

Rice 12.4 

Rice meal 10.2 

RicehuUs 8.2 

Rice bran 9.7 

Rice polish 10.0 

Buckwheat 12. 6 

Buckwheat flour 14 . 6 

Buckwheat hulls ,. 13.2 

Buckwheat bran 10 . 5 

Buckwheat shorts 11.1 

Buckwheat middhngs 13.2 

Sorghum seed ' 12.8 



Water. 



Ash. 



1.5 
1.4 
1.9 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 



0.9 
2.8 
0.7 
0.9 
1.1 
1.8 
1.9 
1.8 
0.6 
2.0 
4.3 
5.8 
5.4 



1.9 
0.7 
3.6 
5.9 
2.4 
2.6 
3.6 
1.0 
3.6 
6.7 
3.0 
2.0 
3.7 
6.9 
6.7 
0.4 
8.1 
13.2 
10.0 
6.7 
2.0 
1.0 
2.2 
3^0 
5.1 
4.8 
2.1 



Protein. 



10.3 

10.5 

11.6 

9.2 

2.4 

8.5 

9.0 

9.8 

9.8 

11.1 

19.7 

6.1 

22.8 

31.1 



36.1 
29.3 
24.0 
11.9 
12 . 5 
11.8 



14.9 
18.0 
19.9 
15.4 
16.1 
16.0 
15.6 
14.9 
12.5 
10.6 

6.7 
14.7 
18.0 
12.4 
10.5 
12.3 

5.4 
19.9 
23.2 
11.8 
14.7 
10.0 
13.5 

3.3 

7.4 
12.0 

3.6 
12.1 
11.7 
10.0 

6.9 

4.6 
12.4 
27.1 
28.9 

9.1 



Crude 
Fiber. 



2.2 

1.7 

2.8 
1.9 

30.1 
6.6 

12.7 
4.1 
3.8 
9.9 
4.7 
3.1 
7.6 

12.0 
1.3 
3.3 
5.3 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
0.3 
0.9 
3.8 
9.0 
8.0 
8.1 
4.6 
7.4 
4.9 
1.7 
0.4 
3.5 
5.1 
2.7 
6.5 
7.3 
3.8 

11.0 

10.7 
9.5 
0.9 
6.1 

18.2 

29.7 
0.2 
5.4 

35.7 
9.5 
6.3 
8.7 
0.3 
43.5 

31.9 
8.3 
4.1 
2.6 



Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 



70.4 
70.1 
66.8 
68.7 
54.9 
64.8 
62,2 
64.0 
64.5 
62.5 
54.8 
22.0 
52.7 
33.4 
39.0 
46.5 
51.2 
71.9 
71.2 
72.0 
70.0 
63.3 
56.2 
53.9 
54.5 
53.7 
60.4 
56.8 
65.1 
72.5 
78.3 
63.8 
59.9 
69.8 
66.3 
61.8 
12.5 



51. 

48. 

59. 

67. 

59. 

50. 

52. 

79.2 

51.2 

38.6 

49.9 

58.0 

64.5 

75.8 

35.3 

38.8 

40.8 

41.9 

69.8 



280 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Contimied). 



Crop. 



Broom-corn seed 

Kaffir seed 

Millet seed 

Hungarian grass seed 

Flaxseed 

Flaxseed, gi-ound 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cottonseed kernels (no liulls) 

Cocoanut cake 

Palm nut meal 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower seed cake 

Peanut kernels (no hulls) 

Peanut meal 

Rape seed cake 

Pea meal 

Soy bean 

Cowpea 

Horse bean 

Corn fodder, field cured 

Corn stover, field cured 

Corn husks, field cured 

Corn leaves, field cured 

Corn fodder, green 

Dent varieties, green 

Dent, kernels glazed green 

Fhnt varieties, green. : 

Fhnt, kernels glazed green 

Sweet varieties, green 

Leaves and husks, gi"een 

Stripped stalks, green 

Hay from Grasses: 

Mixed grasses 

Timothy, all analyses 

Timothy, cut in full bloom 

Timothy, cut soon after bloom . . . . 

Timothy, cut when near ripe 

Orchard grass 

Redtop, cut at diiTerent stages . . . . 

Redtop, cut in full bloom 

Kentucky blue gi-ass 

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed 

is in milk 

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed 

is ripe 

Hungarian grass 

Meadow fescue 

Indian rye grass 

Perennial rye grass 

Rowen (mixed) 



Water. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


Crude 


Nitrogen- 
Free 


Ether 








Fiber. 


Extract. 


Extract. 


11.5 


3.4 


10.2 


7.1 


63.6 


3.0 


9.3 


1.5 


9.9 


1.4 


74.9 


3.0 


14.0 


3.3 


11.8 


9.5 


57.4 


4.0 


9.5 


5.0 


9.9 


7.7 


63.2 


4.7 


9.2 


4.3 


22.6 


7.1 


23.2 


33.7 


8.1 


4.7 


21.6 


7.3 


27.9 


30.4 


9.2 


5.7 


32.9 


8.9 


35.4 


7.9 


10.1 


5.8 


33.2 


9.5 


38.4 


3.0 


10.3 


3.5 


18.4 


23.2 


24.7 


19.9 


6.1 


5.5 


16.8 


20.4 


23.5 


27.7 


8.2 


7.2 


42.3 


5.6 


23.6 


13.1 


11.1 


2.8 


4.2 


46.3 


33.4 


2.2 


6.2 


4.7 


31.2 


3.7 


17.6 


36.6 


10.3 


5.9 


19.7 


14.4 


38.7 


11.0 


10.4 


4.3 


16.8 


24.0 


35.0 


9.5 


8.6 


2.6 


16.3 


29.9 


21.4 


21.2 


10.8 


6.7 


32.8 


13.5 


27.1 


9.1 


7.5 


2.4 


27.9 


7.0 


15.6 


39.6 


10.7 


4.9 


47.6 


5.1 


23.7 


8.0 


10.0 


7.9 


31.2 


11.3 


30.0 


9.6 


10.5 


2.6 


20.2 


14.4 


51.1 


1.2 


10.8 


4.7 


34.0 


4.8 


28.8 


16.9 


14.8 


3.2 


20.8 


4.1 


55.7 


1.4 


11.3 


3.8 


26.6 


7.2 


50.1 


1.0 


42.2 


2.7 


4.5 


14.3 


34.7 


1.6 


40.5 


3.4 


3.8 


19.7 


31.5 


1.1 


50.9 


1.8 


2.5 


15.8 


28.3 


0.7 


30.0 


5.5 


6.0 


21.4 


35.7 


1.4 


79.3 


1.2 


1.8 


5.0 


12.2 


0.5 


79.0 


1.2 


1.7 


5.6 


12.0 


0.5 


73.4 


1.5 


2.0 


6.7 


15.5 


0.9 


79.8 


1.1 


2.0 


4.3 


12.1 


0.7 


77.1 


1.1 


2.7 


4.3 


14.6 


0.8 


79.1 


1.3 


1.9 


4.4 


12.8 


0.5 


66.2 


2.9 


2.1 


8.7 


19.0 


1.1 


76.1 


0.7 


0.5 


7.3 


14.9 


0.5 


15.3 


5.5 


7.4 


27 2 


42.1 


2.5 


13.2 


4.4 


5.9 


29.0 


45.0 


2.5 


15.0 


4.5 


6.0 


29.6 


41.9 


3.0 


14.2 


4.4 


5.7 


28.1 


44.6 


3.0 


14.1 


3.9 


5.0 


31.1 


43.7 


2.2 


9.9 


6.0 


8.1 


32.4 


41.0 


2.6 


8.9 


5.2 


7.9 


28.6 


47.5 


1.9 


8.7 


4.9 


8.0 


29.9 


46.4 


2.1 


21.2 


6.3 


7.8 


23.0 


37.8 


3.9 


24.4 


7.0 


6.3 


24.5 


34.2 


3.6 


27.8 


0.4 


5.8 


23.8 


33.2 


3.0 


7.7 


6.0 


7.5 


27.7 


49.0 


2.1 


20.0 


6.8 


7.0 


25.9 


38.4 


2.7 


8.5 


6.9 


7.5 


30.5 


45.0 


1.7 


14.0 


7.9 


10.1 


25.4 


40.5 


2.1 


16.6 


6.8 


11.6 


22.5 


39.4 


3.1 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



281 



Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products {Continued). 



Crop. 



Hat from Grasses {Continued) 

Mixed grasses and clovers 

Barley hay, cut in milk 

Oat hay, cut in milk 

Swamp nay 

Salt marsh hay 

Wild oat grass 

Buttercups 

White daisy 

Johnson grass 

Fresh Grass: 

Pasture grass 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy, difierent stages 

Orchard grass, in bloom 

Redtop, in bloom 

Oat fodder 

Rye fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Barley fodder 

Hungarian grass 

Meadow fescue, in bloom 

ItaUan rye grass, coming in bloom 

Tall oat grass, in bloom 

Japanese miUet 

Barnyard millet 

Hay from Legumes: 

Red clover 

Red clover in bloom 

Red clover, mammoth 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Japan clover 

AlfaKa 

Cowpea 

Soy bean 

Pea vine 

Vetch 

SerradeUa 

Flat pea 

Peanut vines (no nuts) 

Sainfoin 

Fresh Legumes: 

Red clover, different stages 

Alsike clover 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soy bean 

Serradella 

Horse bean 

Flat pea 



Water. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


Crude 


Nitrogen- 
Free 








Fiber. 


Extract. 


12.9 


5.5 


10.1 


27.6 


41.3 


15.0 


4.2 


8.8 


24.7 


44.9 


15.0 


5.2 


9.3 


29.2 


39.0 


11.6 


6.7 


7.2 


26.6 


45.9 


10.4 


7.7 


5.5 


30.0 


44.1 


14.3 


3.8 


5.0 


25.0 


48.8 


9.3 


5.6 


9.9 


30.6 


41.1 


10.3 


6.6 


7.7 


30.0 


42.0 


10.2 


6.1 


7.2 


28.5 


45.9 


80.0 


2.0 


3.5 


4.0 


9.7 


65.1 


2.8 


4.1 


9.1 


17.6 


61.6 


2.1 


3.1 


11.8 


20.2 


73.0 


2.0 


2.6 


8.2 


13.3 


65.3 


2.3 


2.8 


11.0 


17.7 


62.2 


2.5 


3.4 


11.2 


19.3 


76.6 


1.8 


2.6 


11.6 


6.8 


79.4 


1.1 


1.3 


6.1 


11.6 


79.0 


1.8 


2.7 


7.9 


8.0 


71.1 


1.7 


3.1 


9.2 


14.2 


69.9 


1.8 


2.4 


10.8 


14.3 


73.2 


2.5 


3.1 


6.8 


13.3 


69.5 


2.0 


2.4 


9.4 


15.8 


75.0 


1.5 


2.1 


7.8 


13.1 


75.0 


1.9 


2.4 


7.0 


13.1 


15.3 


6.2 


12.3 


24.8 


38.1 


20.8 


6.6 


12.4 


21.9 


33.8 


21.2 


6.1 


10.7 


24.5 


33.6 


9.7 


8.3 


12.8 


25.6 


40.7 


9.7 


8.3 


15.7 


24.1 


39.3 


9.6 


8.6 


15.2 


27.2 


36.6 


11.0 


8.5 


13.8 


24.0 


39.0 


8.4 


7.4 


14.3 


25.0 


42.7 


10.7 


7.5 


16.6 


20.1 


42.2 


11.3 


7.2 


15.4 


22.3 


38.6 


15.0 


6.7 


13.7 


24.7 


37.6 


11 3 


7.9 


17.0 


25.4 


36.1 


9.2 


7.2 


15.2 


21.6 


44.2 


8.4 


7.9 


22.9 


26.2 


31.4 


7.6 


10.8 


10.7 


23.6 


42.7 


15.0 


7.3 


14.8 


20.4 


39.5 


70.8 


2.1 


4.4 


8.1 


13.5 


74.8 


2.0 


3.9 


7.4 


11.0 


80.9 


1.7 


3.1 


5.2 


8.4 


71.8 


2.7 


4.8 


7.4 


12.3 


83.6 


1.7 


2.4 


4.8 


7.1 


75.1 


2.6 


4.0 


6.7 


10.6 


79.5 


3.2 


2.7 


5.4 


8.6 


84.2 


1.2 


2.8 


4.9 


6.5 


66.7 


2.9 


8.7 


7.9 


12.2 



282 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products {Continued). 



Crop. 



Straw : 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat chaff 

Oat chaff 

Buckwheat straw. 

Soy bean 

Horse bean 



Silage: 

Corn 

Sorghum 

Red clover 

Soy bean 

Apple pomace 

Co^'pea vine ■ • ■ • 

Cow and soy bean vines mixed . 

Field pea vine 

Barnyard millet and soy bean. . 

Corn and sov bean 

Rye ^ 



Roots and Tubers: 

Potato 

Common beets 

Sugar beets 

Mangels 

Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

Sweet potato 



Miscellaneous : 

Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar beet leaves 

Pumpkin, field 

Pumpkin, garden 

Prickly comfrey 

Rape 

Acorns, fresh 

Apples 

Cow's milk 

Cow's cohistrum 

Mare's milk 

Ewe's milk 

Goat's milk 

Sow's milk 

Skim milk, gravity. . . . 
Skim milk, centrifugal. 
Sutterinilk 



Water. 



9.6 

7.1 

9.2 

14.2 

14.3 

14.3 

9.9 

10.1 

9.2 



79.1 
76.1 
72.0 
74.2 
85.0 
79.3 
69.8 
50.1 
79.0 
76.0 
80.8 



78.9 
88.5 
86. 5 
90.9 
90.5 
88.6 
88.6 
88.3 
79.5 
71.1 



90.5 

75.7 
88.0 
90.9 
80.8 
88.4 
84.5 
55.3 
80.8 
87.2 
74.6 
91.0 
81.3 
86.9 
80.8 
90.4 
90.6 
90.1 



Ash. 



4.2 
3.2 
5.1 
5.7 
9.2 
10.0 
5.5 
5.8 
3.7 



1.4 
1.1 
2.6 
2.8 
0.6 
2.9 
4.5 
3.5 
2.8 
2.4 
1.6 



1.0 
1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.8 
1.2 
1.0 
0.7 
1.0 
1.0 



1.4 
4.0 
2.4 
0.5 
0.9 
2 2 
2^0 
1.0 
0.4 
0.7 
1.6 
0.4 
0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 



Protein. 



3.4 
3.0 
4.0 
3.5 

4.5 
4.0 
5.2 
4.6 



1.7 

0.8 
4.2 
4.1 
1.2 

2.7 
3.8 
5.9 
2.8 
2.5 
2.4 



Crude 
Fiber. 



2. 

1. 

1. 

1. 

1 

1.2 

1.1 

1.6 

2.6 

1.5 



2.4 
2.0 
2.6 
1.3 
1.8 
2.4 
2.3 
2.5 
0.7 
3.6 
17.6 
2.1 
6.3 
3.7 
6.2 
3.3 
3.1 
4.0 



38.1 
38.9 
37.0 
36.0 
36.0 
34.0 
43.0 
40.4 
37.6 



6.0 

6.4 
8.4 
9.7 
3.3 
6.0 
9.5 
13.0 
7.2 
7.2 
5.8 



0.6 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.0 
0.8 
1.3 



1.5 

4.9 
2 .2 
1^7 
1.8 
1.0 
2.6 
4.4 
1.2 



Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 



40.4 
46.6 
42.4 
39.0 
34.6 
36.2 
35.1 
37.4 
34.3 



11.0 

15.3 

11.6 

6.9 

8.8 

7.6 

11.1 

26.0 

7.2 

11.1 

9.2 



17.3 

8.0 

9.8 

5.5 

6.2 

7.5 

7.6 

10.2 

15.9 

24.7 



3.9 

12.7 
4.4 
5.2 
7.9 
5.1 
5.4 
34.8 
16.6 
4.9 
2.7 
5.3 
4.7 
4.4 
4.4 
4.7 
5.3 
4.0 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



283 



Table II. — Fertility in Farm Produce. 



Produce. 



Corn, grain 

Corn, stover 

Corn crop . . . 

Oats, grain 

Oats, straw 

Oat crop 

Wheat, grain 

Wheat, straw 

Wheat crop 

Soy beans 

Soy bean straw 

Soy bean crop 

Timothy hay 

Clover seed 

Clover hay 

Cowpea hay 

Alfalfa hay 

Cotton, lint 

Cotton, seed 

Cotton, stalks 

Cotton crop 

Potatoes 

Sugar beets 

Apples 

Leaves 

Wood growth 

Total crop 

Fat cattle 

Fat hogs 

Milk 

Butter 

Rye, grain 

Rye, straw 

Rye crop 

Beets, roots 

Beets, tops 

Beets, crop 

Grass 

Cotton cake, decoraticated. . 

Rape cake 

Linseed cake 

Cotton cake, undecorticated . 

Linseed 

Palm kernel meal, English . . 

Malt dust 

Bran 

Mangels 

Swedes 

Carrots 

Turnips 



Amount. 



100 bushels . 
3 tons 



100 bushels . 
21/^ tons 



50 bushels . 
23^ tons.. . 



25 bushels. 
2J^ tons... 



3 tons 

4 bushels . . . 

4 tons 

3 tons 

8 tons 

1000 pounds . 
2000 pounds . 
4000 pounds . 



300 bushels. 

20 tons 

600 bushels . 

4 tons 

1 tree 



1000 pounds . . 
1000 pounds . . 
10,000 pounds. 
400 pounds . . . 
1470 pounds . . 
3500 pounds. . 
4970 pounds. . 
36,800 pounds. 
9200 pounds . . 
46,000 pounds. 
4000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds . . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds . . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds . . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds . . 
1000 pounds. . 



Nitrogen, 
pounds. 



100 

48 
148 

66 

31 

97 

71 

25 

96 

80 

79 
159 

72 

7 

160 

130 

400 

3 

63 
102 
168 

63 
100 

47 

59 

6 

112 

25 

18 

57 
0.8 

28 

12 

40 

88 

26 
114 

53 

66 

48 

45 

39 

36 

25 

38 

22 
1.9 
2.4 
1.6 
1.8 



Phosphorus, 
pounds. 



17 

6 
23 
11 

5 
16 
12 

4 
16 
13 

8 
21 

9 

2 
20 
14 
36 

0.4 
11 
18 

29.4 
13 
18 

5 

7 

2 
14 

7 

3 

7 

0.2 
12 

4 
16 
22 
11 
33 
13 

31.2 
24.6 
19.6 
22.9 
15.4 
12.2 
17^2 
32.3 

0.7 

0.6 

1.0 

0.6 



68 



284 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table III. 



-Weight per Bushel, Seeding Rate per Acre, Number of Seeds 
PER Pound and Depth to Cover Farm Seeds. 



Crop. 



Grasses. 

Bermuda 

Canada blue 

Creeping bent 

Crested dog's tail 

Erect brome 

Fowl meadow 

Hard fescue 

Italian rye 

Johnson 

Kentucky blue 

^leadow fescue 

Meadow foxtail 

Orchard 

Perennial rye 

Redtop 

Reed canary 

Rough stalked meadow 

Sheep's fescue 

Smooth brome 

Sweet vernal 

TaU meadow fescue 

Tall meadow oat 

Timothy 

Velvet 

Yellow oat 

Legumes. 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover 

Bird's foot trefoil 

Bur clover 

Common vetch 

Cowpeas 

Crimson clover 

Field peas 

Garden peas 

Hairy vetch 

Horse bean 

Japan clover 

Kidney beans 

Kidney vetch 

Red clover 

Soy beans 

Sweet clover 

Velvet beans 

White clover 

White lupine 

Yellow trefoil 

Annual Forage Crops. 
Barnyard millet, Japanese . . 
Broom corn millet 



Weight per 
Bushel, 
pounds. 



36 

14-20 

15-20 

26-30 

14-15 

12-15 

10 

17-24 

28 

6-28 
12-28 

6-14 
12-21 
18-30 
12-40 
14-48 
12-28 
12-28 
12-14 

6-15 
14-25 

7-14 
44-50 

6-7 
12-14 

00-63 

60-66 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

52-68 

60 

60 

56 

25 

60 

60-64 

60-64 

60 

60"' 
60-63 
50-60 
64-66 



35 
60 



Rate of 
Seeding. 



5 pecks. . . 
15 pounds. 



4-6 pecks . 
30 pounds. 



30 pounds .... 
4-6 pecks .... 

25 pounds .... 
12-15 pounds. 
40 pounds .... 
20 pounds .... 
30 pounds .... 
12-15 pounds. 
20-25 pounds. 

26 pounds .... 
30 pounds .... 
15-20 pounds. 
30 pounds .... 
12-20 pounds. 
30-40 pounds. 
15 pounds. . . . 
20 pounds. . . . 
30 pounds. . . . 



15-25 pounds. . 
4-8 pounds .... 

1 1 pounds 

15 pounds 

60 pounds 

4-6 pecks 

12-15 pounds. . 
2 1^-3 3^ bushels 

3 bushels 

40-60 pounds. . 

4 bushels 

15-25 pounds. . 

18-22 pounds.. 
8-14 pounds. . . 

2-3 pecks 

2-4 pecks 

2-6 pecks 

3-6 pounds .... 
11^-2 bushels.. 
4-6 pounds .... 



1-2 pecks . 
2-4 pecks , 



Number 

of Seeds 

per Pound. 



180,000 

2,583,000 

8,000,000 

897,000 

162,000 



578,000 
275,000 



2,637,000 

264,000 

769,000 

457,000 

280,000 

4,135,000 

632,000 

2,706,000 

802,000 

120,000 

837,000 

246,000 

151,000 

1,146,000 

1,268,000 

1,540,000 



210,000 
692,000 
367,000 



129,000 
2,400-4,000 
800-2,400 
75,000 



370,000 
3,200-4,000 
169,000 
304,000 
2,000-7,000 



739,000 
305,000 



212,000 
212,000 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



285 



Table III. — Weight per Bushel, Seeding Rate per Acre, Number of Seeds 
PER Pound and Depth to Cover Farm Seeds {Contimied). 



Crop. 



Annual Forage Crops {Con 
tinued). 

Millet, common 1 

Millet, Hungarian 1 

Millet, German | 

Millet, Golden Wonder J 

Rape 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Sorghum 

Sunflower 

Cereals. 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Flax 

Kaflir corn 

Milo 

Maize, shelled 

Maize, on cob 

Rice 

Rye 

Spelt 

Wheat 

Oats 

Vegetables and Roots. 

Artichokes 

Beets 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Parsnip 

Potato 

Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Sugar beets 

Sweet potato 

Fiber. 

Broom corn 

Cotton, Sea Island 

Cotton, upland 

Hemp 

* Roots. 



Weight per 
Bushel, 
pounds. 



50 

50-60 

26 

28-36 

56 

24-50 



48 

42-50 

56 

50-60 

50-60 

56 

70 

43-45 

56 

40-60 

60 

32 



50-60* 

50* 

50-60* 

45-50* 

60 

55-60* 

50-60* 

50-60* 

50-55 



30-48 
44 
30 
44 



Rate of 
Seeding. 



Number 

of Seeds, 

per pound. 



2-3 pecks. 



3-8 pounds . . . 
40 pounds . . . . 
40-50 pounds . 
13^-2 bushels. 
10-15 pounds. 



7-9 pecks . . . 
3-5 pecks . . . 
2-8 pecks . . . 
3-12 quarts. . 
5 quarts 

> 5-16 quarts 

1-3 bushels . . 
5-10 pecks. . 

5-8 pecks . . . 
8-10 pecks . . 



6-8 bushels- . . 
4-6 pounds.. . 
3-4 pounds . . . 
5-8 pounds . . . 
4-8 pounds . . . 
8-15 bushels. . 
2-4 pounds . . . 
3-5 pounds . . . 
15-20 pounds. 
13^-4 bushels. 



3 pecks 

1 1-3 bushels . 
33^-4 pecks. . 



212,000 



22,500 
23,000-35,000 



25,000 
384,000 



112,000 
208,000 



Depth 

to Cover, 

inches. 



-Vz 



M-1 

1-2 

13^-23^ 



1-23^ 
1-2 

3^-1 

1-2 
1-2 

13^-4 

1^-3 

M-2 

1-3 

1-3 

1-2^ 



3^-1 

2-4 

3^-1 

3^-1 

3^-1 

2-4 



1-2 

13^-3 

1-2 



286 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table IV. — Water Requirements of Various Standard Crops. 



Crop. 



Wheat . 



Oats. 



Barley . 



Corn. 

Rye.. 
Peas. 



Potatoes . 



Alfalfa, 1 year . 
Alfalfa, 2 years 



Clover, red . 

Sugar beets . 
Rice 



Location. 



Germany 

Germany 

Germany 

India 

Akron, Col 

England 

Logan, Utah .... 

Davis, Cal 

Bozeman, Mont. 

Reno, Nev 

Germany 

Germany 

Germany 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

England 

Germany 

Germany 

Germany 

Germany 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Germany 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Germany 

Germany 

Akron, Col 

England 

Germany 

Germany 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Germany 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Davis, Cal 



State College, N. M 

Akron, Col 

England 

Germany 

Wisconsin 

Logan, Utah 

Akron, Col 

India 



Experimenter. 



Sorauer 

HeUriegel 

Von Seelhorst 

Leather 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

Lawes 

Widstoe 

Fortier and Beckett . . 
Fortier and Gieseker . 
Fortier and Peterson . 

WoUny 

Sorauer 

HeUriegel 

Leather 

Kmg 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

Lawes 

WoUny , 

Sorauer 

HeUriegel 

Von Seelhorst 

Leather 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

Wollny 

Leather 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . 

Helh-iegel 

Von Seelhorst 

Briggs and Shantz . . , 

Lawes 

Wolhiy 

HeUriegel 

Leather 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

Von Seelhorst 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 
Fortier and Beckett. 



Briggs and Shantz . 

Lawes 

HeUriegel 

King 

Widstoe 

Briggs and Shantz . 
Leather 



Pounds Water per 
Pound Dry Matter. 



Max- 
imum. 



708 
390 
333 
544 
534 
235 
489 
359 
334 
395 



464 

52G 
639 
262 



366 
454 

461 
544 



390 
420 
438 
700 



353 



294 



1265 
971 



363 
564 



Min- 
imum. 



328 



468 

427 
286 
226 
309 



339 

502 

598 
258 



263 
295 

375 
527 



305 
319 
315 
343 



231 



268 



1005 
522 

757 



297 
398 



* This column represents the average of all reliable and comparable tests. 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 

Table V. — Cost per Acre^ Producing Crops.* 



287 



Crop. 



Average Cost. 



Barley, fall plowed 

Clover, cut for seed 

Corn, ears husked from standing stalks 

Corn, cut, shocked and shredded 

Corn, cut, shocked and hauled in from field . . . 

Corn, growTi thickly and siloed 

Flaxseed, threshed from windrow 

Flaxseed, stacked from windrow 

Flaxseed, bound, shocked, stacked, threshed . . 

Fodder corn, cut and shocked in field 

Fodder corn, cut, shocked and stacked 

Hay, timothy and clover, first crop 

Hay, timothy and clover, two cuttings 

Hay, millet 

Hay, vfild grasses 

Hay, timothy 

Hemp 

Mangels 

Oats, fall plowed 

Oats, on disked corn stubble 

Potatoes, machine production 

Potatoes, machine production, use of fertilizer 

Timothy, cut for seed 

Wheat, fall plowed 



$8.21 

6.50 

10.44 

15.30 

10.26 

19.89 

7.50 

7.85 

7.28 

9.65 

12.36 

5.59 

7.18 

7.10 

4.04 

3.39 

6.74 

32.68 

8.86 

8.88 

26.37 

37.72 

4.43 

7.25 



*Minneaota Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 117, page 29. 



Table VI. — Cost of Farm Horse Power.* 



Agricultural Region. 


Total Annual Cost of 

Keeping One Horse. 

Average 5 Years, 1908-12. 


Actual Cost per Hour 

of Work for One Horse. 

Average 9 Years, 1904-12. 


Southeastern Minnesota 


$103.27 

100.64 

84.67 


9.72 cents 


Southwestern Minnesota 


8.64 cents t 
8.05 cents 


Northwestern Minnesota 







Note. — The cost figures shown in this table have been selected from the statistical data of the 
Division of Farm Management of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. These figures are 
not estimates, taut actual records from a large number of Minnesota farms. The averages are based on 
records of about 450 horses in each region. The annual cost includes interest on investment, deprecia- 
tion, harness depreciation, shoeing, feed, labor and miscellaneous expense. Feed is the largest item in 
the cost of farm horse power, representing on the average % to % of the total cost. The cost of horse 
power per hour is computed by dividing the total annual cost by the actual number of hours worked. 

* Taken from "Field Management and Crop Rotation," by Parker, 
t Seven-year average. 



288 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Table VII. — Weights akd Measures. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound (lb.). 

100 pounds =1 hundredweight (cwt.). 

20 cwt =1 ton (T.). 

1 ton =20 cwt. or 2000 lbs. or 32,000 oz. 

DRY MEASURE. 

2 pints (pt.) =1 quart (qt.). 

8 qts =1 peck (pk.). 

4 pks =1 bushel (bu.). 

1 bu =2150.42 cu. in. 

LIQUID MEASURE. 

4 gills (gi.) =1 pint (pt.). 

2 pints =1 quart (qt.). 

4 quarts =1 gallon (gal.). 

3lH gaUons =1 barrel (bbl.). 

U. S. gallon =231 cu. in. 

7}/2 gallons water = 1 cu. ft. approximately. 

LINEAR MEASURE. 

12 inches (m.) =1 foot (ft.). 

3 feet (ft.) =1 yard (yd.). 

5}4 yds. or 161^ ft = 1 rod (rd.). 

320 rds =1 mile (mi.). 

1 mile or 320 rds. or 17G0 yds. or .5280 ft. or 63,300 ins. 

SQUARE MEASURE. 

144 square inches (sq. in.) =1 square foot (sq. ft.). 

9 square feet (sq. ft.) =1 square yard (sq. yd.). 

3OJ/4 sq. yds =1 square rod (sq. rd.). 

160 sq. rds =1 acre (a.). 

640 acres =1 square mile (sq. mi.). 

1 sq. mi =1 section . 

36 sections =1 township (twp.) 

43,560 sq. ft =1 acre. 

SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE. 

1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) =1 cubic foot (cu. ft.). 

27 cu. ft =1 cubic yard (cu. yd.). 

1 cu. yd = 27 cu. ft. or 40,656 cu. in. 

1 cu. yd =1 load. 

24^ cu. ft =1 perch. 

128 cu. ft. or 8 ft. X 4 ft. X 4 ft =1 cord. 

1 ft. X 12 in. X 1 in =1 board foot. 

surveyor's LINEAR MEASURE. 

7.92 inches =1 link. 

100 links =1 chain. 

80 chains =1 mile. 

Gunter's chain is the unit and is 66 feet long. 

surveyor's SQUARE MEASURE. 

10,000 sq. links =1 square chain. 

10 sq. chains = J acre. 

10 chains square - 10 acres. 



^ 



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